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PHOTOGRAPHIC  MANIPULATION, 

OR 

SYSTEM  OF  PRACTICE 


FOR  THE 


CHEMICAL  DEPARTMENT 


OF  THE 


PORTRAIT  GALLERY. 


BY  S.  R.  DIVINE, 

Practical  Photographer — Author  of  a Treatise  on  Albumen  Photography. 


FEW  YORK: 

244  Canal  Street, 
SEELY  & BOLTWOOD. 
1864. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1863,  by 
SEELY  & BOLTWOOD, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Preface 5 

CHAPTER  I. 

Arrangements  and  Conveniences  of  the  Photographic 
Gallery . 7 

CHAPTER  II. 

Glass,  and  Method  of  Cleaning , 17 

CHAPTER  III. 

Collodion 19 

CHAPTER  IY. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  Bath  for  Negatives..,.. 29 

CHAPTER  Y. 

Development 44 

CHAPTER  YI. 

Fixing  and  Intensifying 48 

CHAPTER  YII. 

Imperfections  of  Negatives 51 

CHAPTER  YIII. 

Routine  of  Practice  in  Making  Negatives 53 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Plain  Paper  Printing 56 


IV 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PAGE. 

Albumen  Paper,  and  Method  of  Preparation 61 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Method  of  Silvering  Albumen  Paper,  and  Fuming 
Process  with  Ammonia 63 

CHAPTER  XII. 

Printing 66 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Toning 68 

CHAPTER  XIY. 

Fixing  and  Washing * 74 

CHAPTER  XY. 

Imperfections  of  Albumen  Prints 76 

CHAPTER  XYI. 

Trimming,  Mounting,  and  Pressing  Photographs 78 

CHAPTER  XYII. 

Saving  Silver  and  Gold  Solutions 80 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 

Pictures  on  Porcelain 84 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Useful  Recipes  and  Facts 88 

APPENDIX. 

Weights  and  Measures 95 


PREFACE 


It  must  be  acknowledged  that  no  important  ad- 
vancement has  been  made  in  Photography  for  several 
years — or  since  Archer  perfected  the  Collodion  Pro- 
cess, and  Le  Grey  gave  us  the  method  of  Alkaline 
Toning.  Still,  very  many  minor  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  details  of  every-day  practice,  and 
the  quality  of  Photographs  has  very  much  improved 
during  the  last  four  or  five  years. 

All  experienced  and  skillful  photographers  are 
aware  of  the  small  importance  to  be  attached  to 
fixed  formulae,  or  recipes  giving  the  exact  weights 
and  measures  of  the  various  ingredients  used  in 
Photographic  compounds,  and  of  the  great  import- 
ance of  careful  manipulation,  directed  by  a correct 
understanding  of  the  circumstances  that  produce 
variable  effects. 

The  author  has  endeavored,  in  the  following 
pages,  to  give  a System  of  Practice  for  the  chemical 
department  of  photographic  portraiture,  describing, 


VI 


PREFACE. 


as  accurately  as  possible,  the  difficulties  which  are 
met  with  in  the  daily  routine  of  the  gallery,  and  the 
means  he  has  adopted  to  overcome  them. 

Believing  that  processes  are  to  be  improved  in 
simplifying  rather  than  in  making  our  present 
formulae  more  complex,  the  category  of  chemicals 
is  limited  to  comparatively  small  range,  and  each 
substance  is  considered  with  reference  to  its  in- 
trinsic value  as  a photographic  agent,  and  its  effect 
when  in  deficiency  or  excess. 

We  have  omitted  all  processes  that  we  consider 
useless  to  the  professional  portraitist  at  the  present 
time,  and  hence  devote  nearly  our  entire  space  to 
Collodion  Negatives  and  Albumen  Printing. 

We  feel  confident  that  the  system'  expounded  in 
the  following  pages  will  enable  all  who  practice  it 
to  secure  uniformly  successful  results,  provided  that 
proper  care  and  neatness  are  observed  in  the  vari- 
ous manipulations,  and  judgment  is  exercised  in 
adapting  means  to  variable  circumstances. 


CHAPTER  I. 


ARRANGEMENTS  AND  CONVENIENCES  OF  THE 
PHOTOGRAPHIC  GALLERY-. 

The  rooms  for  photographic  portraiture  should  be 
large  and  arranged  with  a special  view  to  conven- 
ience. The  light  under  which  the  sitter  is  placed  should 
have  a northern  aspect,  and  should  consist  of  a sky- 
light and  side-light  combined,  in  order  to  secure  the 
advantages  of  both  conjointly,  or  of  either  separately. 
The  sky-light  should  be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high 
at  the  apex,  and  slope  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
to  within  six  feet  of  the  floor.  The  side-light  may  ex- 
tend from  the  sky-light  to  within  two  feet  of  the  floor. 
The  size  of  the  skylight  may  be  twelve  feet  in  length 
by  ten  feet  in  width,  or  larger.  A great  variety  of 
lights  have  been  constructed;  but  the  kind  we  have 
indicated  furnishes  a means  of  illuminating  a model  in 
almost  any  manner  that  may  be  desired.  Lights  have 
sometimes  been  glazed  with  blue  glass,  so  as  entirely  to 
exclude  white  light  from  the  operating  room.  The  in- 
tense illuminating  rays  are  thus  excluded,  while  the 
chemical  rays  are  allowed  to  penetrate,  and  the  light 


8 


BLUE  LIGHTS. 


is  soft  and  mild.  Some  eminent  photographers  have 
tried  the  bine  light,  and  replaced  it  again  with  white; 
and  others  contend  that  there  can  be  no  reasonable 
objection  to  blue,  while  it  possesses  many  advantages 
over  white  light.  It  would  be  difficult  to  decide  be- 
tween the  merits  of  the  two.  Both  lights  have  been 
combined  by  placing  a movable  sash  of  blue  glass 
under  the  white  light,  which  admits  of  either  being 
employed  at  pleasure.* 

There  is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  constructing  lights 


* We  extract  the  following  description  of  Mr.  Bogardus’  Model  Sky- 
light from  the  American  Journal  of  Photography : 

“The  light  fronts  the  south.  This  is  the  capital  fact  about  it.  Of 
course  we  know  it  is  not  the  first  light  which  has  been  made  to  face  the 
south-  But  we  believe  it  to  be  the  first  that  was  deliberately  and  de- 
signedly so  constructed,  a southern  aspect  being  preferred  to  any  other. 
The  top  light  is  fourteen  feet  square ; the  bottom  or  side-light,  meeting 
the  top  light,  is  ten  feet  high  and  fourteen  feet  wide.  The  upper  edge 
of  the  top  light  is  fifteen  feet  from  the  floor.  The  top  light  has,  it  will 
be  seen,  a pitch  of  about  twenty  degrees.  The  glass  of  these  lights  is 
the  ordinary  white  ground  glass;  but  the  glazing  is  double,  and  we  have 
only  described  the  outside.  Six  inches  within,  and  parallel  to  the 
ground  glass,  are  sashes  glazed  with  blue  glass.  There  are  four  sashes 
for  the  bottom  light,  sliding  lightly  on  rollers.  The  operation  of  the 
whole  contrivance  is  this:  the  pure  sunlight  easily  gets  through  the 
ground  glass,  but  the  rays  are  diffused  and  softened ; these  diffused  rays 
meet  the  blue  glass,  and  every  thing  in  them  which  is  not  wanted  is 
held  back,  and  only  the  uncontaminated  chemical  force  passes  down 
nto  the  room.” 

The  sitters  are  made  to  face  the  sun,  and,  accordingly,  the  position 
of  the  background  is  constantly  changed  durfng  the  day.  On  bright 
days,  with  a lens  at  full  aperture,  the  sitting  is  less  than  one  second. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  LIGHT. 


9 


of  extraordinary  hight,  as  some  have  been  made,  for 
the  effect  of  such  is  to  throw  the  light  too  perpendicu- 
larly upon  the  face  of  the  subject,  the  same  as  would 
be  caused  by  placing  him  too  directly  under  an  ordi- 
nary light.  There  should  be  sufficient  distance  be- 
tween the  sky-light  and  walls  which  form  the  sides  of 
the  room  to  admit  of  the  sitter  being  placed  more  or 
less  in  the  light,  and  to  allow  the  backgrounds  to  be 
shifted  forward  or  backward,  according  as  they  are 
wanted  light  or  dark. 

The  light  should  be  furnished  with  movable  screens 
of  blue  muslin  or  cambric,  in  order  to  shut  out  such 
portions  of  light  as  are  detrimental  to  artistic  effect. 

The  light  should  generally  fall  angularly  upon  the 
face  of  the  subject,  so  as  to  cast  the  shadows  down- 
ward and  one  side.  Full  and  specific  directions  for 
lighting  models  can  not  be  given,,  for  no  rules  can  be 
given  which  will  apply  under  all  circumstances,  and  the 
artist  must  be  directed  by  his  own  judgment  and  good 
taste  in  adapting  lights  to  different  figures  and  faces. 

The  light  should  be  so  disposed  as  to  render  promi- 
nent the  most  pleasing  characteristics,  and  at  the 
same  time  conceal  or  ameliorate  natural  defects  in  the 
subject. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  a reflector  or  white  screen  on 
a movable  frame,  to  diminish  the  amount  of  shadow  on 


10 


BACKGROUNDS  AND  INSTRUMENTS. 


the  side  of  tlie  model  which  is  turned  away  from  the 
direct  light. 

BACKGROUNDS. 

The  camera  room  should  be  provided  with  a number 
of  backgrounds  varying  in  tint,  in  order  that  one  may 
always  be  selected  best  suited  to  the  complexion  and 
attire  of  the  subject. 

Backgrounds  may  be  prepared  by  stretching  muslin 
on  a frame,  and  painting  with  a mixture  of  burnt  um- 
ber and  whiting  in  water,  a little  glue  being  added  for 
sizing.  The  mixture  should  be  laid  on  with  a white- 
wash brush,  and  great  care  taken  to  secure  an  even 
coating,  free  from  brush  marks  that  may  show  in  the 
background  of  the  finished  photograph. 

A background  should  have  a dull  surface,  and  those 
painted  in  oil  are  not  so  good,  on  account  of  a glossy 
reflection  they  give  in  certain  lights. 

INSTRUMENTS. 

The  instruments  for  portraiture  should  be  the  very 
best  that  can  be  selected,  for  the  quality  of  the  picture 
depends,  in  a great  degree,  upon  the  excellence  of  the 
lenses  used  in  its  production.  The  manufacture  of 
camera  tubes  has  reached  a great  degree  of  perfection, 
and  superb  instruments  of  both  American  and  foreign 
make  are  to  be  found  in  market.  Among  the  foreign 


LENSES. 


11 


makers,  Voightlander  & Son,  perhaps,  stand  unrivaled, 
• and  we  shall  institute  a comparison  between  their  in- 
struments and  those  made  in  this  country  by  C.  C.  Har- 
rison, and  Holmes,  Booth  & Haydens. 

The  Voightlander  portrait  cameras  have  a shorter 
focus  than  the  American,  cause  more  curvature  of  the 
image,  and  do  not  give  the  same  depth  of  focus.  They 
define  very  sharply,  however,  where  the  focus  does 
fall,  have  a great  illuminating  power,  and  work  in  less 
time  than  any  other  variety  of  lenses  extant.  They 
are  not  so  well  adapted  for  taking  full  length  figures 
as  the  American  instruments,  as  they  will  not  define  so 
sharply  from  head  to  foot,  on  account  of  the  curvature 
of  field  before  mentioned.  For  taking  negatives  of  chil- 
dren they  are  almost  indispensable,  by  reason  of  their 
great  rapidity. 

The  Voightlander  and  American  instruments  for 
cartes  de  visite  are  made  of  the  sizes  J,  J,  and  J,  with 
or  without  central  stops.  In  rooms  that  allow  the 
camera  to  be  placed  at  sufficient  distance  for  pictures 
of  all  kinds,  the  | size  instrument  is  preferable  to  the 
smaller  sizes.  The  tubes  furnished  with  central  stops, 
or  the  expanding  diaphragm,  are  also  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred, on  account  of  their  great  convenience. 

The  boxes  to  which  tubes  are  to  be  fitted  should  be 
of  very  perfect  construction,  especially  those  which  are 


12 


THE  DARK  ROOM. 


designed  to  multiply  pictures  upon  one  plate,  as  a very 
little  derangement,  from  warping  or  other  cause,’  will 
occasion  much  trouble  and  inconvenience. 

A copying  camera,  used  also  for  views,  may  be  ex- 
temporized by  taking  out  the  back  lens  of  a \ portrait 
tube,  and  turning  the  front  lens  round  so  that  the  other 
side  is  presented  to  the  object.  Such  a lens,  when  at- 
tached to  a f-  box,  which  admits  of  sufficient  extension 
by  the  bellows  arrangement,  furnishes  adequate  means 
for  enlarging  small  miniatures  to  f-  size.  When  small 
pictures  are  to  be  made  larger  than  j-  size,  it  is  better 
to  make  a \ negative,  and  print  with  a solar  camera. 

In  making  views  or  copies  of  architecture  where  the 
lines  are  required  to  be  perfectly  straight,  and  absolute 
freedom  from  distortion  is  necessary,  it  is  better  to  use 
an  orthoscopic  tube,  or  one  of  Harrison’s  globe  lenses, 
which  are,  probably,  the  most  perfect  instruments  of 
their  kind. 

The  solar  camera  is  an  indispensable  instrument  in 
every  first-class  gallery.  The  best  form  is  probably 
that  in  which  the  condensing  lens  is  presented  directly 
to  the  sun,  and  made  to  revolve  with  it,  instead  of 
using  a reflector  and  stationary  lens  and  box. 

THE  DARK  ROOM. 

The  room  for  preparing  plates  and  developing  should 
be  convenient  to  the  sky-light,  in  order  to  save  as 


THE  DARK  ROOM. 


13 


many  steps  as  possible.  It  should  not  be  smaller  than 
six  by  ten  feet,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  well  venti- 
lated. It  should  have  a constant  source  of  water  from 
a reservoir  supplied  by  a hydrant  or  cistern,  and  a sink 
to  wash  plates  over.  It  should  be  arranged  with  shelves 
for  bottles  of  chemicals,  plate-holders,  etc.  A great 
many  dark  rooms  at  the  present  time  are  lighted  by 
means  of  yellow  glass,  or  a window  screened  with  yel- 
low cloth  or  paper.  In  our  practice  we  have  discarded 
yellow  daylight  altogether,  and  would  recommend  op- 
erators to  use  a small  gas  or  lamp  light  by  the  side  of 
the  sink  where  the  plate  is  developed. 

The  reason  is  obvious.  With  the  yellow  window 
the  amount  of  light  varies  nearly  every  hour  in  the 
day,  and  the  appearance  of  the  negative,  during  devel- 
opment, varying  with  different  lights,  the  operator  is 
oftentimes  deceived  in  regard  to  the  degree  of  develop- 
ment required. 

The  sink  may  be  made  with  two  compartments, 
each  supplied  with  a cock  for  washing.  The  plate  is 
developed  over  one  compartment  and  slightly  washed 
with  water  ; the  excess  of  silver  is  carried  down  in 
the  sink,  which  is  plugged  to  prevent  it  from  running 
away.  The  silver  is  precipitated  perfectly  by  the  iron 
in  the  developer,  and  after  settling  over  night,  the 
water  in  the  sink  may  be  nearly  all  drawn  off  by  the 


14 


WASHING  YATS. 


waste-pipe,  which  should  rise  an  inch  above  the  bot- 
tom. The  other  compartment  of  the  sink  is  used  for 
the  final  washing  after  developing  and  fixing. 

THE  PRINTING  ROOM 

May  be  built  upon  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  should 
have  windows  fronting  east,  south,  and  west,  with 
shelves  projecting  from  the  outside  and  inclining 
downward,  on  which  to  place  the  printing  frames. 
The  roof,  or  a portion  of  it,  should  consist  of  glass, 
that  the  printing  may  be  carried  on  in  stormy  weather. 
A small,  dark  room  for  silvering  paper  should  be  con- 
tained in  one  end. 

WORK  ROOM. 

Every  gallery  should  contain  a room  of  good  size  for 
cleaning  glass,  compounding  chemicals,  and  for  all 
general  purposes  of  the  photographic  business.  It 
should  be  liberally  provided  with  shelves,  drawers, 
etc.,  for  storing  chemicals  and  materials. 

WASHING  VATS. 

Two  or  three  vats,  supplied  with  running  water,  are 
a necessary  convenience  for  washing  prints.  The  water 
may  be  let  in  through  a pipe  running  round  the  sides 
of  the  sink,  and  perforated  with  small  holes,  allowing 
the  influx  of  a number  of  small  streams,  which  serve  to 
keep  the  prints  in  motion  and  perform  the  washing  more 
thoroughly. 


COLLODION  NEGATIVE  PROCESS. 


GLASS  AND  METHOD  OF  CLEANING. 


17 


CHAPTER  II. 


GLASS,  AND  METHOD  OF  CLEANING. 

The  varieties  of  glass  sold  by  stock  dealers,  for  neg- 
atives, are  numerous,  and  we  shall  speak  of  those  most 
commonly  used.  The  kind  known  as  French  Crystal, 
| white,  is  an  excellent  article  for  plates  not  larger 
than  j-  size.  The  panes  are  slightly  curved,  and  hence, 
for  larger  plates,  they  are  not  suitable,  the  curvature 
often  throwing  the  picture  out  of  focus. 

This  glass  is  generally  quite  free  from  stains  and 
patches,  known  as  rust,  which  appear  on  bad  samples 
of  glass  after  developing. 

The  green  German  plate  is  much  used,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  large  negatives,  as  the  glass  is  thick  and 
perfectly  flat,  and  well  suited  for  withstanding  the 
pressure  of  the  printing  frame.  This  glass  is  some- 
times badly  affected  with  rust. 

The  English  Crown  glass  combines  every  desirable 
quality  for  negative  plates  not  larger  than  J size.  It 
is  too  much  warped  to  admit  of  its  being  used  for 
larger  plates. 


18 


GLASS  AND  METHOD  OF  CLEANING. 


For  very  fine  negatives  polished  plate  glass  is  of 
course  the  best,  but  it  is  too  expensive  for  general  use. 

The  first  step  in  the  operation  of  cleaning  glass  is  to 
immerse  the  plate  in  undiluted  commercial  nitric  acid 
containing  nitrate  of  mercury.  One  ounce  of  quicksil- 
ver is  added  to  every  quart  of  acid,  which  dissolves 
and  forms  the'  nitrate.  The  use  of  nitrate  of  mercury 
is  to  prevent  some  kinds  of  metallic  iridescence  which 
appear  after  development,  although  it  will  not  cure  all 
kinds  of  rust. 

The  dish  for  containing  the  acid  may  be  of  earthen  or 
wood  well  coated  with  wax.  The  glasses  are  allowed 
to  remain  for  any  convenient  length  of  time,  and  when 
wanted  for  use,  they  are  taken  out,  thoroughly  rinsed 
with  water,  and  reared  up  to  drain  and  dry. 

The  glass  is  next  placed  in  a vice,  and  cleaned  with 
alcohol  rubbed  over  the  plate  with  a piece  of  cotton 
flannel.  If  the  plate  has  been  carefully  washed,  there 
is  no  necessity  for  scouring  it  with  rotten-stone  or  other 
polishing  powder. 


COLLODION. 


19 


CHAPTER  III. 


COLLODION. 

Negative  collodion  is  one  of  the  most  important  chern- 
ical  mixtures  employed  in  photography,  and  requires 
the  very  best  quality  of  the  different  ingredients.  The 
character  of  negative  collodion  is  determined  more  by 
the  pyroxyline  or  soluble  cotton  than  any  chemical  in 
its  composition. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  find  a good  sample  of  negative 
cotton  in  market  than  any  other  article  in  the  whole 
category  of  photographic  chemicals.  We  are  of  opin- 
ion that  a great  degree  of  misapprehension  prevails 
among  operators  concerning  the  proper  qualities  of 
cotton  for  negatives.  Most  operators  rely  upon  perfect 
solubility  as  a criterion  for  good  cotton,  overlooking  en- 
tirely its  other  qualities. 

A sample  of  cotton  which  makes  a fine  film  for 
negative  impressions,  may  or  may  not  dissolve  without 
sediment ; but  in  many  cases,  not  to  say  a majority,  & 
certain  amount  of  flocculent  matter  is  left  undissolved. 
A short,  powdery  cotton  is  unfit  for  negatives,  not  giv- 
ing a film  of  sufficient  intensity.  The  best  variety  of 


20 


PYROXYLIN  E. 


cotton  for  negative  collodion  is  long  in  the  fibre,  and 
not  very  much  altered  in  texture  from  ordinary  cotton, 
but  somewhat  harsher  to  the  touch. 

In  dissolving  in  the  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  it 
exhibits  no  tendency  to  aggregate  in  little  glutinous 
lumps  resembling  wheat  grains,  which  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom (which  is  the  case  with  the  short  variety),  but  re- 
mains loos&and  flocculent,  a great  portion  of  it  floating 
on  the  surface  of  the  solution  until  dissolved.  If  too 
little  changed  from  the  texture  of  raw  cotton,  it  is  not 
sufficiently  soluble,  and  the  film,  after  development, 
will  contain  semi-transparent  markings  resembling  in 
form  those  used  to  represent  a chain  of  mountains  on  a 
map. 

A suitable  article  of  cotton  will  be  taken  up  in  large 
quantity  by  the  solvents  giving  the  collodion  body, 
and  will  flow  into  a smooth  homogeneous  film  on  the 
plate.  That  which  makes  a gelatinous,  slimy  collo- 
dion, must  be  rejected  as  useless. 

Good  pyroxyline  is  a veq^  uncertain  article. of  manu- 
facture, and  those  chemists  whose  cotton  stands  in 
highest  repute  do  not  invariably  make  a uniform  qual- 
ity. Pyroxyline  dissolves  in  ether  and  alcohol  mixed 
in  almost  any  proportion  ; but  about  equal  parts  of 
each  are  perhaps  best  for  collodion.  If  a much  larger 
proportion  of  ether  is  used,  the  collodion  sets  too 


COLLODION. 


21 


quickly,  not  allowing  time  to  manipulate  tbe  plate  till 
a perfectly  even  film  is  obtained,  while,  if  the  alcohol 
be  in  excess,  the  film  will  be  somewhat  rough  and 
grainy,  and  too  rotten. 

In  making  collodion,  the  ether  may  first  be  put  into 
a bottle,  and  the  cotton  introduced  till  it  fills  the  ether 
to  the  surface  or  very  nearly.  On  adding  an  equal 
quantity  of  alcohol,  the  resulting  plain  collodion  will 
be  about  the  right  consistency.  It  should  be  tried  by 
pouring  out  on  a glass,  however,  and  if  too  thin,  add 
more  cotton  ; if  too  thick,  put  in  more  solvent.  Shake 
the  mixture  till  the  cotton  is  dissolved.  The  plain  col- 
lodion should  be  set  aside  in  the  dark  to  settle,  as  light 
decomposes  both  ether  and  pyroxyline,  and  generates 
acid.  It  may  be  decanted  and  iodized  in  a few  days, 
or  as  soon  as  it  is  perfectly  clear,  or  it  may  remain  for 
months  without  deterioration  if  not  sensitized.  If  col- 
lodion requires  to  be  prepared  as  soon  as  possible,  the 
iodizing  compounds  may  be  introduced  as  soon  as  it  is 
first  made,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  when  sufficiently 
cleared  by  standing. 

The  alcohol  and  ether  should  be  of  the  best  quality 
obtainable,  and  we  may  here  allude  to  the  most  com- 
mon impurities  of  those  articles.  The  alcohol  sold  in 
market  is  very  frequently  contaminated  with  essential 
oils,  and  especially  fusil  oil,  giving  it  a bad  odor,  and 


22 


COLLODION. 


very  much  injuring  it  for  photographic  purposes,  as 
they  promote  decomposition  and  derangement  of  the 
silver  bath. 

Alcohol  for  collodion  should  be  at  least  95  per  cent, 
strong,  and  devoid  of  any  disagreeable  smell.  The  Co- 
logne spirits  of  distillers  is  generally  well  suited  for 
collodion.  So  far  as  we  are  aware,  absolute  alcohol  is 
unknown  in  market,  although  spirit  ranging  from  95  to 
91  per  cent,  is  frequently  sold  as  such. 

If  the  alcohol  is  too  weak,  the  collodion  will  set  in  a 
grainy  film,  very  much  resembling  the  texture  of  cloth 
— the  same  effect  that  is  produced  by  adding  too  much 
water  to  collodion. 

The  ether  of  commerce  almost  always  contains  alco- 
hol, and  sometimes  water,  the  latter  being  present  in 
what  is  known  as  washed  ether.  Pure  concentrated 
ether  contains  neither  alcohol  nor  water,  and  is  recom- 
mended in  preference  to  washed  ether.  Ether,  by  ex- 
posure to  light,  is  partially  decomposed,  acetic  acid  be- 
ing slowly  formed.  It  should  be  tested  with  litmus 
paper  before  being  used  for  collodion. 

Acid  in  any  of  the  ingredients  causes  rapid  deterior- 
ation of  the  collodion,  liberating  free  iodine,  which  pro- 
duces a red  color,  and  soon  renders  the  collodion  inert 
and  worthless. 

The  method  of  exciting  collodion,  or  rendering  it  sen- 


IODIDES  AND  BROMIDES. 


23 


sitive  with  iodides  and  bromides,  next  demands  onr 
consideration.  A great  number  of  combinations  of 
iodine  and  bromine,  with  different  bases,  have  been 
employed  ; but  very  few  of  them  are  well  suited  for 
negative  collodion.  Those  which  are  not  soluble  with- 
out the  addition  of  water  to  the^collodion  we  have  re- 
jected in  our  practice,  for  a first-rate  article  of  cotton 
will  not  bear  weak  solvents.  Those  iodides  which 
toughen  the  film  are  also  excluded,  because  they  de- 
stroy intensity/  The  best  iodides  are  undoubtedly 
those  of  ammonium  and  sodium,  both  being  perfectly 
soluble  in  ether  and  alcohol,  and  leaving  the  collodion 
in  that  limpid  condition  that  forms  a porous  film,  which 
is  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  intensity.  It  is  true 
they  are  not  so  stable  as  some  other  iodides,  but  when 
employed  in  conjunction  with  bromide  of  cadmium, 
they  are  sufficiently  so  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  Bro- 
mide of  cadmium  is  perfectly  soluble  in  ether  and  al- 
cohol, and  having  the  effect  of  staying  the  decomposi- 
tion of  collodion,  is  probably  the  best  bromide  that  can 
be  used.  We  have  employed  simply  iodide  of  ammo- 
nium and  bromide  of  cadmium  for  negative  collodion 
during  the  last  two  years. 

With  regard  to  the  proportions  of  iodide  and  bromide 
that  should  be  introduced  into  collodion,  a great  variety 
of  opinions  exist,  and  very  erroneous  notions  have 


24 


IODIDES  AND  BROMIDES. 


obtained  concerning  the  effect  of  'bromide.  The  preva- 
lent idea  is,  and  the  author  adopted  the  same  view  in 
a former  work,  that  bromide,  beyond  certain  propor- 
tions, lowered  intensity  and  reduced  the  vigor  and  con- 
trast of  the  negative.  From  a number  of  careful  ex- 
periments, made  with  a view  to  the  solution  of  this 
question,  we  confidently  assert  that  bromide  has  no 
effect  whatever  in  reducing  the  density  or  contrast  of 
the  negative.  We  have  employed  a collodion  sensitized 
entirely  with  bromide,  and  obtained  negatives  on  the 
first  development  with  iron,  of  proper  intensity  and 
every  other  desirable  quality  for  printing,  although  the 
plate  required  a very  long  exposure  in  the  camera.  Next 
we  gradually  introduced  iodide  with  the  bromide,  and 
obtained  similar  results  with  a diminution  of  time.  We 
have,  therefore,  arrived  at  the  conclusion,  that  the  effect 
of  bromide  is  simply  to  reduce  the  time  necessary  for 
exposing  the  sensitized  plate  to  light.  The  proportions 
of  iodide  and  bromide  necessary  to  secure  the  maximum 
of  sensitiveness  we  have  not  fully  determined,  but  they 
are  probably  somewhere  near  the  ratio  of  four  grains 
of  iodide  to  three  grains  of  bromide  in  the  ounce  of 
collodion. 

The  formula  for  collodion  that  we  have  used  daily  in 
the  gallery,  has  been 


COLLODION. 


25 


Plain  collodion,  . . .1  fluid  ounce. 

Iodide  of  ammonium,  . . 5 grains. 

Bromide  of  cadmium,  . . 2 grains. 

Collodion  should  not  contain  a much  greater  quantity 
of  the  mixed  iodides  and  bromides  than  seven  grains 
to  the  ounce.  If  over  iodized,  the  film  will  be  coarse 
and  rough  after  development.  If  under  iodized,  the 
picture  will  be  very  smooth,  but  thin  and  faint. 

Collodion  made  after  the  formula  given  above,  will 
keep  from  two  to  three  weeks  in  summer,  and  six  weeks 
in  winter.  If  after  iodizing  collodion,  it  should  imme- 
diately commence  turning  red  from  acidity  of  some  of 
the  ingredients,  it  should  be  neutralized  by  putting  in 
about  one  half  a grain  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to  the 
ounce.  If  the  alkali  is  added  as  soon  as  the  tendency 
to  redden  becomes  manifest,  the  collodion  will  be  re- 
stored to  a light  color  in  a few  hours  ; but  if  it  be  neg- 
lected for  any  length  of  time,  the  bicarbonate  will  have 
no  effect  in  bringing  it  back  to  its  original  state. 
Should  the  collodion  be  rendered  alkaline,  and  give 
foggy  pictures  when  treated  in  this  manner,  it  may  be 
neutralized  with  hydrobromic  acid. 

Collodion  gradually  changes  color  as  it  grows  older, 
passing  from  a light  straw-color  when,  new,  to  dark 
red,  when  it  is  no  longer  available  for  good  negatives. 

When  new,  and  nearly  white,  it  may  or  may  not  give 
2 


26 


FLOWING  THE  PLATE. 


vigorous  negatives,  depending  upon  the  condition  of 
the  bath.  It  should  be  tried,  and  if  the  lights  and 
shadows  are  not  sufficiently  contrasted,  a little  old  col- 
lodion should  be  mixed  with  it,  or  a few  drops  of  alco- 
holic solution  of  iodine  added.  Collodion  generally 
gives  the  best  effects  when  it  has  reached  the  orange 
tint. 

All  collodion  should  be  filtered  through  cotton  or 
cotton  flannel,  made  into  a loose  stopper,  and  placed  in 
a glass  funnel. 

FLOWING  THE  PLATE. 

A wide-mouthed  bottle,  holding  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen ounces,  makes  a good  flowing  bottle.  It  should 
be  filled  about  two  thirds  full  of  collodion  of  the  exact 
consistency  for  flowing.  Collodion  that  is  too  thin 
will  not  give  a negative  of  sufficient  density  for  print- 
ing; when  too  thick,  it  can  not  be  made  to  set  in  a per- 
fectly even  film.  When  too  thin,  let  it  become  thicker 
by  evaporation;  when  too  thick,  add  alcohol  and  ether, 
or  thinner  collodion. 

It  is  very  important  to  keep  the  collodion  of  a uniform 
consistency,  in  order  to  work  with  certainty,  and  that 
in  the  flowing  bottle  becoming  thicker  by  evaporation, 
as  it  is  flowed  on  the  plates  and  poured  back,  should  be 
often  replenished  from  a stock  that  is  a very  little 
thinner  than  required  for  flowing. 


FLOWING  THE  PLATE. 


27 


Take  the  plate  by  the  lower  left  hand  corner,  and 
flow  on  collodion  till  it  is  half  covered.  Then,  by  care- 
fully tilting  the  plate,  cause  the  collodion  to  spread 
over  it  entirely,  and  drain  off  the  excess  from  the  lower 
right  hand  corner.  Rock  the  plate  gently  before  the 
collodion  sets,  till  the  lines  coalesce,  and  the  film  is  per- 
fectly even.  When  the  collodion  has  ceased  to  run  in 
a stream  from  the  corner  from  which  it  is  drained,  it 
should  be  wiped  away  from  the  edges  of  the  glass  where 
it  is  thickest,  with  the  finger,  that  the  draining  from  the 
surface  may  be  facilitated;  otherwise  the  film  near  that 
corner  will  be  thicker  than  on  the  other  parts  of  the 
plate. 

It  requires  much  practice  to  flow  a plate  well  with 
thick  collodion.  If  there  are  bubbles  on  the  surface  of 
the  collodion  in  the  bottle,  they  should  be  removed  by 
blowing  it  before  it  is  poured  out.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  float  any  specks  or  particles  of  dried 
film  from  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  as  they  produce 
comets  and  other  imperfections  in  the  negative. 

When  the  collodion  has  become  a little  tacky,  the 
plate  is  ready  for  immersion  in  the  silver  bath.  Place 
it  on  the  dip-rod  and  let  it  down  with  a quick  motion, 
but  not  so  rapid  as  to  cause  a splash,  which  would 
spatter  the  plate  and  cause  spots  to  appear. 

After  the  plate  is  immersed,  move  it  upward,  down- 


28 


PLOWING  THE  PLATE. 


ward,  and  sidewise,  carefully,  for  half  a minute.  This 
is  to  avoid  streaks  that  may  occur  when  the  plate  is 
let  down,  and  allowed  to  remain  at  rest  during  the 
whole  time  of  immersion.  The  plate  is  ready  to  come 
out  when  the  collodion  surface  is  thoroughly  wet  and 
exhibits  no  greasy  lines. 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH  FOR  NEGATIVES.  29 


CHAPTER  IV. 


NITRATE  OP  SILVER  BATH  FOR  NEGATIVES. 

The  negative  bath  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
chemical  solutions  with  which  the  photographer  has  to 
deal,  and  requires  the  most  scrupulous  care  in  its  prep- 
aration and  management.  Every  operator  has  wit- 
nessed its  innumerable  freaks  when  in  a state  of  de- 
rangement, and  has  been  forced  to  the  disagreeable  duty 
of  telling  his  disappointed  sitter,  that  “ the  chemicals 
are  out  of  order,”  or  to  the  unfair  alternative  of  palm- 
ing off  a bad  picture.  The  chemistry  of  the  nitrate 
bath  is  now  sufficiently  understood  to  enable  the  care- 
ful and  intelligent  operator,  at  all  times,  to  make  a sat- 
isfactory negative.  We  shall  first  describe  the  process 
of  making  a new  bath,  and  afterward  the  methods  of 
restoring  it  to  working  condition  when  it  has  ceased  to 
give  satisfactory  pictures. 

Take  pure  crystallized  nitrate  of  silver  and  fuse  it  in 
an  evaporating  dish,  taking  care  not  to  raise  the  heat 
much  higher  than  the  melting  point.  By  this  means, 
there  is  a small  portion  of  nitrite  of  silver  formed, 
which  has  a powerful  effect  in  giving  vigor  and  inten- 


30 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


sity  to  the  negative,  and  at  the  same  time  the  silver  is 
purified  from  organic  matter  if  any  happen  to  be  present. 

When  cold,  dissolve  the  fused  nitrate  in  pure  water, 
and  dilute  till  the  hydrometer  indicates  fifty-five  grains 
of  nitrate  of  silver  to  the  ounce.  This  solution,  when 
iodized  and  made  slightly  acid,  is  a proper  negative 
bath.  It  may  be  used  without  iodizing  if  a thick  col- 
lodion is  used,  and  the  plates  are  taken  out  just  as  soon 
as  they  are  coated,  i.  e.,  when  the  film  is  wet  smoothly 
and  does  not  appear  greasy.  The  bath  will  shortly  ac- 
quire a necessary  amount  of  iodide  of  silver  from  the 
plates  that  are  immersed  in  it.  Nitrate  of  silver  dis- 
solves a portion  of  iodide  of  silver — the  amount  dis- 
solved being  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  solu- 
tion— and  if  the  plate  remains  for  any  length  of  time  in 
a bath  made  without  iodizing,  the  coating  of  iodide  of 
silver  will  be  entirely  removed,  and  the  plate  be  left 
worthless. 

We  would  recommend  the  operator,  however,  to  iodize 
the  bath  by  separating  it  into  two  equal  portions,  iodiz- 
ing one  to  saturation  and  filtering,  and  then  mixing  it 
with  the  other.  The  bath  will  then  have  lost  its  greed  for 
iodide  of  silver  in  a great  measure,  without  being  satu- 
rated with  it.  Iodide  of  ammonium,  or  potassium,  may 
be  used  to  iodize  the  solution,  adding  enough  to  leave  a 
very  small  portion  of  iodide  of  silver  undissolved  after 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


31 

thorough  shaking.  The  quantity  required  will  not  ex- 
ceed three  or  four  grains  to  every  ounce  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  the  solution.  Nearly  all  the  works  that  have 
been  written  on  photography  give  directions  for  iodiz- 
ing a bath  to  saturation,  i.  e.,  the  full  amount  that  it 
will  take  up.  For  negative  baths,  however,  such  a 
mode  of  preparation  is  totally  wrong.  A bath  grows 
weaker  from  the  time  the  first  plate  is  immersed,  and 
consequently  loses  its  power  of  retaining  so  much 
iodide  of  silver  in  solution.  If  the  bath  is  saturated  at 
the  outset,  it  wfill  precipitate  iodide  of  silver  as  it  be- 
comes weakened  by  use,  which  will  lodge  in  fine  par- 
ticles on  the  collodion  film  and  cause  a multitude  of 
pinholes , which  will  injure,  or  wholly  spoil  the  negative. 
These  pinholes  will  become  apparent  after  coating  a 
very  few  plates  when  the  bath  is  fully  iodized,  and  if  a 
plate  is  examined  before  development,  it  will  be  seen 
to  be  covered  with  specks  resembling  fine  sand.  They 
stick  obstinately  to  the  film  and  prevent  the  reduction 
of  silver  on  the  spot  where  they  rest  during  develop- 
ment, and  hence  leave  a hole  or  clear  spot  by  trans- 
mitted light.  Pinholes  caused  by  iodide  of  silver,  pre- 
cipitated from  the  bath,  are  exceedingly  small  and  of  a 
jagged  shape,  in  consequence  of  the  angular  form  of 
the  crystals. 

When  the  bath  is  not  fully  iodized,  it  will  work  for 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


32 

some  time  before  becoming  saturated,  and  freedom  from 
the  annoyance  of  pinholes  is  obtained  until  it  reaches 
that  point.  Every  plate  should  be  taken  from  the  bath 
as  soon  as  it  is  coated,  that  the  silver  solution  may  be 
preserved  as  long  as  possible  below  the  point  of  satura- 
tion with  iodide  of  silver.  The  solubility  of  iodide  of 
silver  in  the  nitrate  varies  with  the  temperature,  and  a 
bath  will  sometimes  give  pinholes  on  a cold  morning, 
and  work  free  from  them,  later  in  the  day,  when  the 
rooms  become  warm.  In  this  case  the  iodide  which  is 
precipitated  by  the  solution  becoming  cold  over  night, 
is  redissolved  as  the  temperature  rises.  This  phenome- 
non will  only  occur  as  the  bath  aproaches-  the  point  of 
saturation. 

The  acid  used  for  making  a bath  work  clearly,  is 
either  nitric  or  acetic.  From  long  use  of  both  acids 
we  have  acquired  a preference  for  the  latter,  for  the 
reasons  that  it  may  be  added  in  larger  quantity  with- 
out causing  loss  of  intensity,  or  making  a longer  ex- 
posure in  the  camera  necessary  ; and  that  the  negatives 
are'  more  dense  and  vigorous  than  is  usual  when  the 
bath  is  acidified  with  nitric  acid.  The  amount  of  acid 
to  be  added  to  a bath  must  be  ascertained  by  trial,  us- 
ing no  more  than  is  just  necessary  to  obtain  a clear 
picture.  Commence  by  adding  two  or  three  drops  of 

acetic  acid — glacial  or  No.  8 will  answer  equally  well 
2* 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATII. 


33 


— coat  a plate,  then  expose  and  develop  it.  If  the  pic- 
ture is  clear  in  the  shadows  there  is  acid  sufficient ; if 
it  is  foggy,  drop  in  a little  more  acid  and  make  another 
trial.  The  use  of  acid  is  to  dissolve  organic  (vegetable 
or  animal)  matter,  and  to  neutralize  when  the  solution 
is  in  an  alkaline  condition. 

If  the  bath  is  alkaline  no  picture  at  all  can  be  devel- 
oped ; and  if  organic  matter  is  present  uncorrected  by 
acid,  the  image  will  be  indistinct  and  foggy  by  a re- 
duction of  silver,  independent  of  that  caused  by  light. 

We  have  described  the  way  in  which  a bath  becomes 
unfit  for  use,  by  causing  pinholes.  We  will  now  con- 
sider the  cause  to  which  nearly  all  other  freaks  of  the 
bath  are  due — organic  matter.  The  solution  gradually 
becomes  charged  with  it  through  the  medium  of  the 
collodion,  and  to  a small  extent,  perhaps,  from  imper- 
fectly cleaned  glass,  and  the  dust  of  the  atmosphere. 
When  present  in  any  considerable  quantity,  the  silver 
is  reduced  over  the  entire  plate,  and  of  course  the  pic- 
ture is  indistinct  and  misty.  The  effect  is  seen  partic- 
ularly in  the  shadows,  which  instead  of  remaining  bright 
and  transparent,  become  vailed  and  foggy.  Loss  of  vig- 
or and  intensity  accompany  the  fogging,  and  the  nega- 
tive is  unfit  for  printing.  The  bath  acquires  organic  mat- 
ter from  the  time  it  is  first  used,  and  hence  gradually 
becomes  altered  from  its  normal  condition  of  purity. 


34 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


The  first  negatives  made  from  it  are  of  course  the 
best,  and  when  it  becomes  so  foul  that  the  pictures  are 
no  longer  satisfactory,  the  bath  must  be  put  aside  till 
it  is  thoroughly  cleansed  and  restored  to  a state  of 
purity.  With  care  and  cleanliness  on  the  part  of  the 
operator,  a bath  never  goes  out  of  order  except  by  rea- 
son of  pinholes  or  organic  matter.  The  pinholes  may 
make  their  appearance  while  the  solution  still  gives 
fine  chemical  effect  otherwise  ; or  the  picture  may  be- 
come flat,  thin,  and  misty  from  organic  matter  before 
the  pinholes  are  visible.  When  the  solution  is  only 
half  iodized  as  has  been  before  directed,  pinholes  will 
not  generally  show  themselves  till  the  bath  has  ceased 
to  work  satisfactorily  otherwise. 

The  wateu  used  in  preparing  a bath  should  be  the 
purest  obtainable.  Distilled  water  is  the  best  when 
condensed  in  a worm  and  receiver,  that  do  not  make  it 
impure.  Lead  pipe  will  not  answer  for  condensing  dis- 
tilled water  for  photographic  purposes,  as  the  lead  oxi- 
dizes, and  a portion  of  the  oxide  is  dissolved  and  again 
precipitated  as  an  oxycarbonate  when  the  water  is  ex- 
posed to  air.  Commercial  distilled  water  is  sometimes 
impure  from  lead,  and  a bath  made  from  it  will  keep 
turning  milky  after  repeated  filtrations,  and  will  not 
work  so  long  as  the  turbidity  exists.  When  other 
sources  of  pure  water  are  not  at  hand,  every  gallery 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


35 


should  be  supplied  with  an  apparatus  for  distilling*, 
which  may  be  made  of  tin  with  a copper  bottom,  and  a 
worm  of  block-tin  for  condensing  the  steam.  Next  to 
distilled  water,  that  from  melted  ice  is  in  the  state  of 
greatest  purity.  Blocks  of  ice  that  are  not  dirty  or 
honey-combed  should  be  selected.  Rain  water  caught 
in  clean  tin  vessels,  or  melted  snow  is  also  very  good 
for  chemical  purposes. 

Some  natural  sources  of  water,  such  as  springs, 
rivers,  and  lakes  furnish  water  of  sufficient  purity  for 
the  photographer’s  wants.  If  the  water  is  soft  and  free 
from  vegetable  and  animal  matters,  it  will  answer  for 
the  purpose  of  making  baths.  When  the  purity  of  wa- 
ter is  suspected,  a bath  prepared  from  it  should  be  set 
in  the  sun  for  several  hours,  and  if  a trace  of  organic 
matter  be  present  it  will  first  darken  the  solution,  and 
then  settle  to  the  bottom  as  a black  powder. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  we  have  directed  the 
bath  to  be  made  of  the  strength  of  fifty-five  grains  of 
nitrate  of  silver  to  the  ounce  of. water.  Such  a strength 
of  the  bath  is  best  when  the  temperature  is  between 
10°  and  1 5°,  but  in  very  hot  weather  when  the  ther- 
mometer rises  to  80°  or  90°,  or  still  higher,  a forty-five 
or  fifty  grain  solution  will  generally  be  found  strong 
enough. 

A fifty-five  grain  bath  prepared  in  the  manner  we 


36 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


have  recommended,  can  generally  be  worked  down  to 
a strength  of  forty  grains  before. failing. 

All  works  on  photography,  which  have  heretofore 
been  written,  we  belieye,  recommend  the  replenishment 
of  the  bath  with  fresh  silver,  in  crystals,  or  a strong  so- 
lution of  uniodized  nitrate.  This  method  of  proceeding, 
although  it  seems  rational  at  first  view,  and  sometimes 
succeeds  in  practice,  we  strongly  protest  against,  and 
advise  the  operator  never  to  strengthen  or  tamper  with 
the  bath  till  it  is  thoroughly  renovated  and  made  over. 
When  a bath  has  become  reduced,  the  addition  of  nitrate 
of  silver  generally  disturbs  it,  causing  the  organic 
matter  to  precipitate  more  or  less,  and  for  a time  the 
solution  behaves  worse  than  before  the  nitrate  was  in- 
troduced. Neither  should  the  bath  be  filtered  or  ex- 
posed to  light  after  it  has  once  been  put  into  use  for 
the  same  reason. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  a bath  holding  a large 
quantity  of  solution  in  order  to  make  negatives  per- 
fectly clean,  and  with  ease,  certainty,  and  uniformity. 
We  would  recommend  the  employment  of  from  one  and 
a half  to  two  gallons  of  solution  for  the  bath.  The  great 
advantages  of  a large  bath  are,  that  it  works  uniformly 
for  a long  time,  saving  much  care  and  labor  in  its  man- 
agement, and  that  it  gives  negatives  cleaner  and  more 
perfect  than  can  possibly  be  made  from  a bath  holding 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


37 


only  a small  quantity  of  solution.  We  use  a bath  hold- 
ing two  and  a half  gallons,  and  three  hundred  f-  plates 
can  be  sensitized  in  it  before  the  solution  becomes  so 
disordered  as  to  require  changing.  The  plate  is  not 
allowed  to  descend  to  the  bottom  of  the  solution,  but 
only  half  or  two  thirds  the  way — a hole  being  made 
through  the  dip-rod,  and  a peg  thrust  in,  which  rests 
upon  the  top  of  the  bath,  and  prevents  the  plate  from 
sinking  deeper  than  is  required.  By  this  arrangement 
the  fragments  of  collodion  film  and  other  particles  of 
matter  floating  in  the  bath,  instead  of  lodging  on  the 
plate,  sink  below  it  and  greater  cleanliness  is  secured. 

The  methods  of  restoring  an  old  silver  bath  to  work- 
ing condition,  will  next  be  considered.  A bath,  when 
worn  out  from  use,  as  has  been  before  stated,  is  gener- 
ally saturated  with  iodide  of  silver,  and  charged  with 
organic  matter.  A considerable  portion  of  the  iodide 
of  silver  and  the  whole  of  the  organic  matter  must  be 
removed  before  the  solution  is  again  fit  for  use.  A 
very  effectual  mode  of  accomplishing  these  results,  and 
the  one  we  recommend  for  simplicity,  is  the  following  : 

The  old  solution  is  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
pure  water,  when  it  immediately  becomes  of  a milky 
turbidity  from  precipitated  iodide  of  silver.  It  is  then 
filtered  through  a double  thickness  of  paper,  the  liquid 
running  through  clear,  and  the  precipitated  iodide  be- 


33 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


ing  left  behind  on  the  filter.  The  solution  is  then  put 
into  an  earthen  evaporating  dish,  placed  upon  the  stove 
and  boiled  away  to  dryness.  The  nitrate  of  silver, 
which  remains  in  the  bottom,  is  then  carefully  fused. 
The  organic  matter  will  be  separated  from  the  solution 
during  the  evaporation,  and  will  be  observed  to  collect 
as  a black  powder  on  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  dish. 
By  fusing  the  nitrate  of  silver  after  the  water  is  boiled 
a way,  the  organic  matter  is  to  a great  extent  carbon- 
ized and  rendered  totally  insoluble.  When  the  dish 
has  cooled,  pure  water  is  thrown  in  and  stirred  with  a 
glass  rod  till  the  nitrate  is  dissolved,  when  it  is  diluted 
to  a strength  of  fifty-five  grains  to  the  ounce  and  filtered. 
The  organic  matter  is  thus  separated  almost  entirely, 
as  may  be  known  by  the  quantity  of  black  and  yellow 
matter  left  upon  the  filter.  The  solution  after  acidify- 
ing— for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  acid  is  . driven 
off  by  evaporation — is  ready  for  use. 

The  nitrate  of  silver,  which  it  is  necessary  to  add  in 
order  to  bring  the  bath  up  to  its  original  strength  and 
bulk,  should  be  thrown  into  the  evaporating  dish  and 
boiled  with  the  rest  of  the  solution. 

In  hot  weather,  when  it  is  not  convenient  or  desira- 
ble to  employ  the  heat  of  a stove  for  the  purpose  of 
evaporating,  the  method  of  precipitating  the  silver  as 
a carbonate,  and  redissolving  with  nitric  acid,  may  be 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


39 


resorted  to.  This  process  was  first  devised  by  Mr.  F. 
B.  Gage,  and  described  by  him  in  “ Humphrey’s  Journal 
of  Photography.” 

Put  the  solution  in  a good  sized  bottle,  and  introduce 
finely  pulverized  sal-soda  (Mr.  Gage  says  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  but  we  think  sal-soda  preferable,  for  the  reason 
that  the  precipitate  falls  to  the  bottom  without  fuming 
and  endangering  the  loss  of  silver  by  the  vessel  run- 
ning over,  as  is  the  case  when  the  bicarbonate  is  used), 
until  the  silver  is  all  thrown  down.  Fill  up  the  bottle 
with  pure  water,  shake  it,  and  allow  the  precipitate  to 
settle.  When  well  settled,  fill  up  the  bottle  again  with 
water  to  wash  the  precipitate.  Kepeat  this  washing 
six  or  eight  times,  to  carry  off  the  excess  of  soda. 
When  the  water  of  the  last  washing  is  drained  off,  cau- 
tiously add  pure  nitric  acid,  which  will  dissolve  the 
precipitate  with  effervescence.  Make  small  additions 
of  the  acid  at  a time,  stir  the  mixture  up  well  after  each, 
and  allow  it  to  settle.  Then  pour  off  the  dissolved  por- 
tion into  another  vessel.  A small  portion  of  carbonate 
of  silver  must  be  left  undissolved  in  order  to  leave  the 
solution  in  a neutral  condition,  and  if  by  accident  too 
much  acid  is  thrown  in,  the  whole  work  will  require 
doing  over.  If  it  is  well  stirred  after  each  portion  of 
acid  is  introduced,  allowed  to  settle,  and  then  poured  off, 
there  will  be  less  danger  of  getting  in  too  much  acid, 


40 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


and  that  which  is  poured  off  will  of  course  be  in  a neu- 
tral state.  Proceed  in  this  way  until  there  is  onty  a 
very  small  quantity  of  precipitate  left  undissolved, 
which  is  added  to  the  solution  that  has  been  decanted, 
the  whole  filtered  and  diluted  to  the  proper  strength. 

A bath  treated  in  this  manner,  will  work  for  a time 
without  the  addition  of  any  acid.  The  chief  points  to 
be  attended  to  in  this  process,  are  these  : 

1.  That  the  sal-soda  be  pure. 

2.  That  the  resulting  precipitate  be  well  washed  to 
free  it  perfectly  from  all  excess  of  soda. 

3.  That  the  precipitate  be  not  all  dissolved  before  it 
is  filtered. 

If  this  part  of  the  process  is  not  attended  to,  you  will 
lose  all  your  labor.  The  theory  of  this  is,  that  organic 
matter  in  the  bath  is  soluble  in  acid,  and  can  not  be  fil- 
tered out  while  the  bath  is  acid.  The  least  amount  of 
precipitate  left  undissolved,  will  leave  the  bath  perfectly 
neutral.” — Gage. 

It  should  be  remarked,  that  the  iodide  of  silver  is  not 
removed  by  this  process,  and  the  solution  should  be  di- 
luted with  water  and  filtered  before  precipitating,  in 
order  to  take  out  a portion  of  it.  The  strengthening  of 
the  bath  should  be  done  by  adding  the  nitrate  of  silver 
before  precipitating. 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


41 


Either  of  the  two  foregoing  processes  will  generally 
suffice  to  keep  the  operator  out  of  trouble. 

A bath,  by  being  used,  acquires  nitrates  of  the  bases 
with  which  the  iodine  and  bromine  are  combined  in  the 
collodion.  For  instance,  iodide  of  ammonium  in  the 
collodion  forms  nitrate  of  ammonia  in  the  bath,  and  bro- 
mide of  cadmium  produces  nitrate  of  cadmium.  Nitrate 
of  ammonia  is  removed  by  both  the  foregoing  processes 
of  purifying  a bath,  being  decomposed  and  volatilized 
when  the  silver  is  fused  in  the  former  process,  and 
washed  away  in  the  latter.  Nitrate  of  cadmium 
remains  during  both  processes. 

Metallic  or  alkaline  nitrates  may  be  present  in  the 
bath,  in  considerable  quantity,  without  affecting  it  in- 
juriously. We  have  worked  successfully  with  a nega- 
tive bath,  that  was  of  a bright  green  color  from  copper 
contained  in  it. 

When  it  is  desired  to  free  an  old  silver  solution  from 
iodide  of  silver,  and  every  other  impurity,  the  following 
process  is  probably  the  most  available  : 

Place  slips  of  sheet  zinc  in  the  solution,  when  the 
silver  will  fall  down  in  the  metallic  state,  the  zinc  dis- 
solving and  taking  the  place  of  the  silver.  In  a few 
1 lours  the  silver  will  all  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of 
a gray  powder,  and  the  zinc  that  remains  undissolved  is 
to  be  picked  out,  and  sulphuric  acid,  diluted  with  two 


42 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


or  three  parts  of  water  is  poured  upon  the  silver  and  al- 
lowed to  digest,  in  order  to  dissolve  the  small  particles 
of  zinc  that  may  have  become  detached,  and  distributed 
through  the  mass.  Stir  the  mixture  occasionally,  and 
allow  the  acid  to  stand  till  bubbles  of  hydrogen  are  no 
longer  given  off.  Then  pour  off  the  acid  and  wash  the 
silver  in  several  changes  of  water,  or  until  litmus  paper 
is  no  longer  reddened  in  it.  The  silver  can  then  be 
dissolved  in  pure  nitric  acid,  diluted  with  two  parts 
of  water.  After  solution  boil  down  in  an  evaporating 
dish  to  drive  off  excess  of  acid,  and  carefully  fuse.  The 
nitrate,  when  dissolved  and  filtered,  will  be  pure  enough 
for  all  purposes  of  photography. 

Recently  precipitated  chloride,  iodide,  and  bromide 
of  silver,  are  converted  into  metallic  silver  by  contact 
of  zinc,  and  sometimes  in  employing  this  process  the 
nitrate  is  first  thrown  down  as  chloride  with  common 
salt.  The  zinc  is  placed  in  the  moist  chloride,  and  a 
few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  added,  which  makes  the  ac- 
tion more  energetic.  After  reduction,  the  silver  is 
treated  as  before  described. 

A solution  for  a negative  bath,  after  filtering,  should 
be  perfectly  clear  and  colorless.  If  any  symptoms  of 
turbidity  exist,  it  will  never  produce  a really  fine 
negative. 

When  convenient,  the  solution  may  be  prepared  some 


NITRATE  OF  SILVER  BATH. 


43 


days  before  using,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  light. 
The  last  traces  of  organic  matter  are  then  precipitated, 
and  the  bath  will  generally  give  more  clear  and  bril- 
liant effects  than  when  newly  made. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


DEVELOPMENT. 

The  latent  image  on  a collodion  plate  is  formed  by  a 
molecular  change  in  the  iodide  and  bromide  of  silver, 
induced  by  the  action  of  light,  and  is  rendered  visible 
by  a developer  or  chemical  agent,  which  reduces  the 
free  nitrate  of  silver  on  the  plate  to  the  metallic  state, 
and  causes  it  to  deposit  on  those  parts  which  have  been 
affected  by  light. 

Protosulphate  of  iron  and  pyrogallic  acid  are  em- 
ployed as  developing  agents ; the  former  being  now 
almost  universally  used.  The  developer  for  negatives 
is  made  by  dissolving  about  two  ounces  of  protosul- 
phate of  iron  in  a quart  of  water,  and  adding  from  eight 
to  ten  ounces  of  acetic  acid  No.  8.  No  alcohol  should 
be  used  in  the  developer,  as  it  tends  to  roughen  the 
film,  and  give  a smutty  appearance  to  the  picture. 

If  the  developer  contains  a great  excess  of  iron,  pin- 
holes (very  much  resembling  those  caused  by  iodide  of 
silver  from  the  bath)  will  be  found  in  consequence  of 
the  precipitation  of  oxide  of  iron  on  the  plate.  Too  much 
iron  will  also  act  so  rapidly  as  to  make  it  difficult  to 


DEVELOPMENT. 


45 


develop  a plate  evenly.  Too  little  iron  or  too  much 
acid  will  make  the  development  slow  and  tedious,  and 
the  negative  is  apt  to  be  thin  in  consequence  of  a por- 
tion of  the  free  nitrate  of  silver  being  washed  away  be- 
fore it  is  precipitated.  When  the  developer  contains 
an  insufficiency  of  acid,  it  will  crawl  on  the  plate  and 
mottle  it. 

The  developer  should  be  thrown  on  the  plate  from  a 
small  glass  vessel  (a  two  ounce  graduate  glass  an- 
swers the  purpose  admirably),  in  such  a manner  as  to 
flow  over  the  entire  plate  instantly.  The  plate  is  held 
by  the  lower  left  corner  with  the  left  hand,  and  the 
right  hand  holding  the  developing  glass,  is  brought  to 
the  left  corner  also,  and  moved  suddenly  to  the  right, 
emptying  the  glass  at  the  same  time. 

The  image  will  start  out  first  in  the  highest  lights, 
and  when  the  shadows  begin  to  appear,  the  plate  should 
be  swung  over  the  light,  in  order  to  see  how  the  devel- 
opment is  proceeding.  It  is  checked  by  a stream  of 
water  when  the  negative  appears  dense  enough  in  the 
lights,  and  the  details  are  well  defined.  When  the 
chemicals  are  working  with  great  intensity,  the  high 
lights  may  grow  too  thick  before  the  shadows  are  well 
brought  out,  in  which  case  a longer  exposure  must  be 
given,  and  the  development  stopped  the  instant  the 
lights  appear  intense  enough  for  printing.  If  the  chemi- 


46 


DEVELOPMENT. 


cals  are  working-  with  low  intensity,  the  shadows  may 
be  perfectly  defined  while  the  lights  are  still  too  thin  for 
printing.  When  such  is  the  case,  continue  the  develop- 
ment as  long  as  silver  is  deposited  on  the  lights,  which 
may  be  known  by  holding  the  negative  over  the  light, 
and  then  flow  over  a solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  about 
twenty  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  with  half  as  much 
acetic  acid  added.  This  will  flow  readily  on  the  plate, 
and  the  developer  which  remains,  will  cause  the  pic- 
ture to  grow  more  dense.  If  it  does  not  yet  come  up 
to  the  required  thickness  for  printing,  pour  on  the  de- 
veloper and  silver  solution  till  it  does.  An  acid  silver 
solution  for  redeveloping,  obviates  the  necessity  of 
washing  the  plate  after  the  first  development. 

A negative  may  be  redeveloped  with  a solution  of 
pyrogallic  acid,  about  four  grains  to  the  ounce  of  wa- 
ter, with  a half  ounce  of  acetic  acid,  and  adding  a few 
drops  of  nitrate  of  silver  solution  just  before  it  is  * 
thrown  over  the  plate.  The  negative  must  be  washed 
thoroughly  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  iron  developer 
before  the  pyrogallic  solution  is  applied,  otherwise  blue 
stains  will  be  formed. 

When  redeveloping  is  resorted  to,  we  have  a prefer- 
ence for  iron  over  pyrogallic  acid,  as  the  negatives  are 
generally  not  so  hard  with  the  former  as  the  latter. 

The  operator  should  aim  to  get  his  negatives  intense 


DEVELOPMENT. 


47 


enough  after  one  development  with  iron,  as  liner 
modeling  and  more  soft  and  brilliant  effects  can  thus 
be  secured.  If  proper  care  and  attention  is  bestowed 
upon  the  bath  and  collodion,  there  will  generally  be  no 
difficulty  in  accomplishing  this  object. 

Some  interest  has  been  excited  of  late  concerning  the 
use  of  formic  acid  in  the  developer.  It  has  been  as- 
serted, that  with  certain  conditions  of  the  collodion  and 
bath,  a negative  could  be  made  with  less  than  one  half 
the  time  of  exposure  that  is  now  required.  From  a num- 
ber of  experiments  that  we  have  made,  we  have  failed 
to  discover  any  greater  rapidity  of  action  by  the  use 
of  formic  acid. 


48 


FIXING  AND  INTENSIFYING. 


CHAPTER  YI. 


FIXING  AND  INTENSIFYING. 

The  fixing  of  a collodion  picture  is  done  with  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  or  cyanide  of  potassium.  Either  of 
these  substances  will  dissolve  iodide  and  bromide  of 
silver.  After  a plate  has  been  exposed  and  developed, 
the  larger  portion  of  iodide  and  bromide  of  silver  still 
remains  unchanged,  and  it  is  necessary  to  dissolve  it 
out.  Cyanide  of  potassium  is  the  most  convenient  fix- 
ing agent,  as  it  works  quickly  and  is  very  easily 
cleansed  from  the  film  by  washing.  It  must  not  be 
used  so  strong  as  to  attack  the  half-tones  of  the  nega- 
tive. It  may  be  used  of  such  strength  that  the  nega- 
tive will  be  perfectly  fixed  in  from  thirty  to  sixty  sec- 
onds. The  plate  must  be  very  thoroughly  washed  from 
the  developer  before  applying  the'cyanide,  or  blue  stains 
will  be  liable  to  occur. 

In  employing  hyposulphite  of  soda  there  is  no  danger 
of  dissolving  the  half-tones,  and  the  plate  may  lie  in 
the  dish  of  hypo,  till  convenient  to  take  it  out.  The 
plate  must  be  washed  very  thoroughly  after  fixing. 
The  negative  may  be  dried  spontaneously  over  an  alco- 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  NEGATIVES. 


51 


CHAPTER  VII. 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  NEGATIVES. 

There  are  many  circumstances  that  interfere  with  the 
production  of  perfect  negatives,  and  this  chapter  will 
be  devoted  to  a consideration  of  the  more  common 
causes  of  failure. 

Want  of  intensity. — This  may  result  from  the  collodion 
being  too  thin,  in  which  case  allow  it  to  evaporate;  from 
a film  that  is  too  tough  and  impenetrable,  caused  by 
unsuitable  cotton;  from  acid  in  the  collodion;  too  much 
acid  in  the  silver  bath  ; from  using  too  much  light  on 
the  sitter. 

Too  much  intensity — may  be  remedied  by  adding  a 
little  alcoholic  solution  of  iodide  of  cadmium  to  the 
collodion. 

Pinholes. — We  have  described  the  way  in  which  pin- 
holes are  formed  by  the  bath,  and  by  the  developer  when 
it  is  too  strong.  They  are  always  very  small,  and  of 
irregular  shapes.  Pinholes  may  be  formed  by  small  par- 
ticles of  matter  floating  in  the  bath,  or  by  the  collodion 
not  being  perfectly  settled.  In  the  latter  two  cases 
they  are  larger  and  not  so  numerous,  and  may  be  en- 


52 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  NEGATIVES. 


tirely  avoided  by  using  a larger  bath  and  filtering  the 
collodion. 

The  negative  is  foggy. — Fogging  may  result  from  a 
variety  of  causes  : 

1.  Unclean  glass. 

2.  Impure  chemicals. 

3.  Organic  matter  in  the  bath. 

4.  Alkaline  bath. 

5.  Alkaline  collodion. 

6.  Diffused  light  in  the  camera,  plate-holder,  or  dark 
room. 

*7.  Over  exposure. 

The  film  peels  off  after  drying. — This  may  result  from 
the  glass  not  being  well  cleaned,  or  from  rust  or  scoria 
on  the  surface,  which  can  not  be  removed  in  cleaning. 

The  film  peels  up  at  the  edges  while  in  the  bath,  or  dur- 
ing development  or  fixing. — Roughen  the  edges  of  the 
glass  to  prevent  the  film  from  loosening. 


ROUTINE  OF  PRACTICE  IN  MAKING  NEGATIVES.  53 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


ROUTINE  OF  PRACTICE  IN  MAKING  NEGATIVES. 

We  propose  in  this  chapter  to  give  a brief  summary 
of  the  preceding  chapters,  with  a few  additional  facts 
and  observations. 

The  chemicals  being  compounded  as  directed,  the 
first  thing  to  do  is  to  warm  the  rooms  to  a temperature 
between  T0°  and  75°.  In  hot  weather,  when  the  ther- 
mometer ranges  from  80°  to  95°,  it  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  make  good  negatives,  and  the  chemicals  run 
rapidly  out  of  order.  The  bath  will  become  foul  with 
organic  matter  much  sooner  than  in  cool  weather,  and 
the  collodion  will  pass  to  the  red  and  inert  stage  in  a 
fortnight. 

Fill  the  flowing  bottle  with  collodion  of  a good  stock, 
and  get  it  of  just  the  right  consistency  by  evaporating 
when  too  thin,  and  by  adding  alcohol  and  ether  when 
too  thick. 

Before  coating  a plate,  roughen  the  edges  with  a file 
to  prevent  the  collodion  from  peeling  up  in  the  bath,  or 
during  the  washing.  There  will  be  a greater  tendency 


54  ROUTINE  OF  PRACTICE  IN  MAKING  NEGATIVES. 

of  the  film  to  peel  up  when  the  bath  has  just  been 
renewed,  and  it  attacks  the  film  a little. 

Brush  the  plate  carefully  with  a camel’s  hair  brush, 
to  remove  dust. 

Flow  the  plate  as  perfectly  as  possible,  and,  when  the 
collodion  sets,  immerse  it  in  the  bath  quickly,  but  not 
with  a splash. 

Move  the  plate  from  side  to  side,  upward  and  down- 
ward, for  half  a minute  after  immersion.  When  it  has 
been  in  about  three  minutes,  raise  it  up  and  see  if  it  is 
coated.  If  it  is  wet  smoothly,  take  it  out  and  place  it 
in  the  plate-holder. 

The  corners  of  the  tablet  must  be  wiped  out  after 
every  plate  is  used,  to  prevent  stains  upon  the  plate. 

Expose  the  plate  the  proper  length  of  time,  as  nearly 
as  may  be  judged,  and  develop  it.  If  the  picture 
flashes  out  quickly,  becoming  somewhat  indistinct  as 
the  development  is  continued,  the  plate  has  probably 
been  over  exposed.  If  the  shadows  come  out  very 
slowly,  and  the  high  lights  grow  very  intense,  the  plate 
has  been  under  exposed.  If  vigor  and  contrast  can  not 
be  obtained  by  varying  the  exposure,  the  collodion  must 
be  varied  by  making  it  of  a darker  color  with  iodine 
or  old  collodion.  If  that  does  not  suffice,  a very  little 
acid  may  be  added  to  the  bath.  If  proper  effects  can 
not  be  obtained  by  any  of  these  methods,  the  solution 


ROUTINE  OF  PRACTICE  IN  MAKING  NEGATIVES.  55 

in  the  bath  must  be  changed,  i.  e.,  another  one  substi- 
tuted. 

The  operator  should  keep  on  hand  two  solutions  for 
the  bath,  and,  while  one  is  being  used,  the  other  may  be 
purified  by  evaporating  or  precipitating. 

Expose  the  plate  as  quickly  as  possible  after  it  is 
taken  from.  the  bath,  and  develop,  immediately  after  ex- 
posure, to  secure  the  best  effects. 

Place  the  thin  end  of  the  plate  downward  in  the 
tablet,  that  the  head  of  the  sitter  may  be  impressed 
upon  the  most  perfect  portion  of  the  collodion  surface. 

When  the  negatives  come  up  with  too  much  intensity, 
add  alcoholic  solution  of  iodide  of  cadmium  to  the  col- 
lodion. 

When  too  little  intensity  is  the  fault,  redevelop  with 
iron  and  silver. 

We  have  observed  that  the  electrical  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  greatly  influences  chemical  effects  in  pho- 
tography. Even  when  the  bath  is  perfectly  pure,  and 
the  collodion  in  prime  condition,  a sudden  change  of 
weather,  from  cool  and  dry  to  warm  and  humid,  will 
occasion  more  or  less  trouble  in  securing  fine  chemical 
effects.  Negatives  are  more  brilliant  and  transparent 
when  taken  in  cool,  clear  weather. 


56 


SILVERING  PROCESS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


PLAIN  PAPER  PRINTING— SALTING. 

Take  good  photographic  paper,  Saxe  or  Rive  is  best, 
and  immerse  it  in  a solution  of  chloride  of  ammonium, 
five  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water,  contained  in  a suita- 
ble tray,  and,  when  the  sheet  is  perfectly  wet,  take  it 
out  and  pin  up  by  the  corners  to  dry. 

SILVERING  PROCESS. 

Make  a solution  of  pure  nitrate  of  silver;  sixty  grains 
to  the  ounce.  Drop  in  concentrated  aqua  ammonia, 
which  will  first  form  a brown  precipitate  of  oxide  of 
silver,  causing  the  solution  to  become  muddy  or  turbid. 
Add  more  ammonia,  drop  by  drop,  till  the  solution  just 
becomes  clear  again  by  the  precipitated  oxide  of  silver 
becoming  redissolved.  At  this  point  there  is  probably 
a slight  excess  of  ammonia,  and  enough  nitrate  of  sil- 
ver must  be  added  to  turn  the  solution  slightly  turbid 
again,  when  it  is  filtered  out  clear.  Free  ammonia  must 
not  exist,  as  it  makes  the  paper  turn  brown  too  soon 
after  silvering. 

The  salted  paper  is  silvered  by  pouring  on  about  two 


SILVERING  PROCESS. 


57 


drachms  of  the  above  solution  to  a sheet,  and  brushing 
it  evenly  over  the  surface  with  a piece  of  cotton  flan- 
nel folded  and  held  between  two  small  plates  of  glass. 

The  silvering  must  be  done  in  a weak  light,  and  the 
paper  hung  up  in  a dark  place  to  dry. 

Prints  on  plain  paper  may  be  toned  after  the  albumen 
prints  have  gone  through,  using  the  same  bath  when  it 
is  considerably  weakened.  (See  Chap.  XIII.) 

We  do  not  dwell  at  length  on  the  subject  of  plain 
paper  printing,  as  albumen  paper  has  almost  entirely 
superseded  it  for  plain  photographs.  For  full  particu- 
lars, we  would  refer  the  reader  to  “Waldack’s  Trea- 
tise.” 


3* 


ALBUMEN  PAPER  PRINTING. 


PREPARATION  OF  ALBUMEN  PAPER. 


61 


CHAPTER  X. 


ALBUMEN  PAPER,  AND  METHOD  OF 
PREPARATION. 

The  majority  of  photographers  get  their  albumen 
paper  from  the  trade,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  buy  than  to  prepare  it.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  paper  used  for  albumenizing,  the  Saxe  and  the 
Rive.  The  Rive  paper  gives  more  gloss,  owing  to  the 
qualities  of  the  size,  but  it  also  contains  more  imper- 
fections, such  as  spots  and  holes,  and,  when  albumen- 
ized,  is  more  inclined  to  blister  during  the  toning, 
fixing,  and  washing. 

The  Saxe  paper  is  more  uniform  in  texture,  and,  all 
things  considered,  is  the  best  article  in  market  for 
albumenizing. 

Paper  of  medium  thickness  should  be  selected,  which 
may  be  albumenized  in  the  following  manner  : 

Take  fresh  eggs  and  break  them  individually  in  a 
cup,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  yolk,  and  pour  the 
albumen  in  a vessel  used  for  beating  it  up.  Any  egg 
that  is  bad  must  be  rejected.  Add  pulverized  chloride  ' 
of  ammonium,  ten  grains  to  each  ounce  of  albumen,  and 


62 


PREPARATION  OF  ALBUMEN  PAPER. 


beat  the  whole  till  it  becomes  a stiff  froth,  and  not  a 
drop  of  fluid  remains.  A revolving  egg-beater,  such  as 
is  sold  for  culinary  use,  will  perform  the  work  very 
quickly.  Let  the  albumen  stand  twenty-four  hours  to 
settle,  and  then  strain  through  muslin  into  a shallow 
dish  large  enough  to  float  a sheet  of  paper. 

Take  a sheet  of  paper,  and,  commencing  at  one  cor- 
ner, carefully  lay  it  down  on  the  albumen  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  avoid  air-bubbles;  this  is  a rather  deli- 
cate operation,  and  considerable  skill  is  required  to  do 
it  properly.  Allow  the  paper  to  remain  on  the  albu- 
men from  one  to  two  minutes,  then  lift  it  off  carefully 
and  hang  it  diagonally  over  a line  or  rounded  stick  to 
dry.  If  paper  is  floated  too  long,  the  albumen  sinks  in 
the  paper,  and  the  surface  dries  dull.  The  paper  should 
be  hung  in  a warm  place,  for  the  quicker  it  is  dried  the 
finer  the  glaze.  Albumen  should  be  used  before  it 
begins  to  decompose. 

Much  experience  is  required  in  order  to  judge  when 
albumen  is  in  the  proper  state  for  use,  as  it  exhibits 
many  freaks  and  peculiarities. 


SILVERING  ALBUMEN  PROCESS. 


63 


CHAPTER  XI. 


METHOD  OF  SILVERING  ALBUMEN  PAPER,  AND 
FUMING  PROCESS  WITH  AMMONIA. 

Prepare  a solution  of  pure  nitrate  of  silver,  not  less 
than  eighty  grains  to  the  ounce,  and  make  it  slightly 
alkaline  by  adding  a drop  of  ammonia  to  each  ounce. 
The  employment  of  ammonia  will  generally  prevent  dis- 
coloration of  the  solution.  Pour  the  solution  into  a 
porcelain  or  rubber  tray,  and  float  the  albumen  paper 
upon  it  for  one  minute;  if  the  paper  remains  on  five 
minutes  it  will  do  no  harm.  Breathe  upon  the  paper 
if  it  is  inclined  to  curl  up  at  the  edges,  when  it  will  go 
down  to  a flat  position.  When  it  is  ready  to  come  off, 
lift  the  corner  with  a strip  of  glass,  and  hang  up  in  a 
dark  place  to  drain  and  dry.  Papers  are  very  conven- 
iently hung  on  a line  with  a spring  clothes-pin. 

Very  many  modifications  of  the  silver  solution  for 
albumen  paper  have  been  prescribed — among  others, 
the  admixture  of  nitrate  of  ammonia,  or,  what  is  equiva- 
lent, dissolving  the  precipitate  formed  by  aqua  ammo- 
nia, with  nitric  acid.  It  will  not  answer  to  use  the  am- 
monio-nitrate  as  made  for  plain  paper,  as  that  dissolves 


64  FUMING  PROCESS  WITH  AMMONIA. 

the  albumen.  Ammonia  salts  of  silver  give  a rich  pur- 
ple color  to  photographic  prints,  and  hence  it  is  highly 
desirable  to  secure  the  advantage  of  ammonia  in  the 
silver  sensitizing  of  albumen  paper.  Instead  of  intro- 
ducing nitrate  of  ammonia  into  the  silver  solution,  it  is 
better  to  form  an  ammonia-nitrate  of  silver  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  paper  by  the  fuming  process,  which  will 
presently  be  described.  Nitrate  of  ammonia  in  the  so- 
lution will  not  economize  silver,  as  has  been  claimed, 
by  making  a less  degree  of  strength  answer  for  prints 
of  equal  richness  and  beauty.  Neither  is  there  any 
advantage  in  employing  it  in  conjunction  with  fuming. 
A silver  solution  for  albumen  paper  will  sometimes  be- 
come discolored.  The  best  method  of  decolorizing,  is 
to  filter  it  through  animal  charcoal. 

FUMING  PROCESS  WITH  AMMONIA. 

When  the  silvered  albumen  paper  is  perfectly  dry, 
place  it  in  a tight  box,  and  expose  to  the  fumes  of  strong 
ammonia  contained  in  a saucer  beneath.  The  ingen- 
ous  photographer  will  have  no  difficulty  in  devising  an 
arrangement  for  introducing  several  sheets  of  paper  at 
a time,  in  such  a way  as  to  expose  the  surfaces  equally 
to  contact  with  the  fumes. 

The  length  of  time  necessary  for  fuming  varies  with 
different  kinds  of  paper,  from  ten  minutes  to  half  an 


FUMING  PROCESS  WITH  AMMONIA. 


65 


hour.  A paper  heavily  glazed  with  albumen  requires 
a longer  exposure  to  the  fumes  than  a thin  light  paper. 
A bad  article  of  paper  will  sometimes  turn  brown  over 
the  ammonia  vapor,  and  is  therefore  worthless  for  this 
process. 

The  paper  must  never  be  put  in  damp,  for  in  that 
case  a scum-will  form  on  the  surface,  which  will  injure 
or  spoil  it  for  printing.  The  same  effect  takes  place 
when  the  dry  paper  is  excessively  fumed  with  concen- 
trated ammonia.  The  paper  should  be  exposed  long 
enough  to  cause  the  prints  to  appear  of  a rich  purple 
color  while  printing.  If  the  paper  appears  red  or  choco- 
late-brown in  the  printing-frame,  it  has  not  remained 
long  enough  in  the  ammonia  vapors. 

The  advantages  of  ammonia  fuming  are  : that  a 
weaker  silver  solution  may  be  used  ; that  the  prints 
are  more  easily  toned,  and  with  less  gold;  that  the  ten- 
dency of  paper  to  become  meazly  during  the  toning  is 
to  a great  extent  obviated  ; and,  that  greater  sensi- 
tiveness is  obtained,  so  that  weaker  negatives,  with 
better  detail,  can  be  employed. 


66 


PRINTING. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


PRINTING. 

The  negative  for  printing  should  be  opaque  enough, 
in  the  high  lights,  to  prevent  the  paper  under  them  from 
turning  color  while  the  deep  shadows  are  being  printed 
to  a rich  black.  It  should  also  be  well  defined  in  the 
half-tints,  in  order  that  the  drapery  may  not  be  one 
entire  patch  of  black,  without  light  or  gradation. 

In  printing,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  Closest  con- 
tact of  the  paper  with  the  negative,  and  stiff  springs 
in  the  printing-frames  are  requisite  to  keep  the  paper 
firmly  in  place.  It  is  necessary  to  print  darker  than 
the  picture  is  intended  to  remain,  the  degree  varying 
with  the  strength  of  the  silver  solution  employed,  and 
also  with  the  kind  of  toning  bath  used. 

In  printing  in  sunshine,  the  negative  should  be  so 
placed  that  the  light  falls  perpendicularly  upon  it,  in 
order  to  secure  the  greater  sharpness.  Intense  nega- 
tives should  be  printed  in  the  sun,  and  weak  negatives 
in  diffuse  light.  Vignettes  are  printed  in  various  ways, 
but  the  best  mode  is  to  place  a piece  of  card  board  over 
the  negatives,  cutting  an  aperture  of  the  shape  you 


PRINTING. 


67 


wish  the  picture  to  appear,  but  somewhat  smaller,  and 
paste  a piece  of  tissue  paper  over  the  opening..  This 
produces  a soft  tinting,  and  a gradual  fading  of  the 
picture  into  indistinctness.  A little  distance  should 
intervene  between  the  card  board  and  the  negative,  to 
produce  the  finest  effect;  and  the  board  should  be  closely 
fastened  down  at  the  edges  to  prevent  light  from  en- 
tering, and  causing  the  whole  picture  to  print  more  or 
less.  In  diffuse  light  it  is  not  necessary  to  place  tissue 
paper  over  the  opening  ; but  in  sunshine  the  edges 
would  print  too  sharp  without. 

The  vignette  printing  glasses  sold  by  stock  dealers — 
which  are  glasses  transparent  in  the  middle,  and  gradu- 
ally growing  opaque  toward  the  edges — do  not  give 
quite  so  fine  effects  as  the  card  and  tissue  paper,  and 
can  not  be  altered  and  adapted  to  the  size  and  shape 
often  required. 

Several  hours  may  elapse  between  the  printing  and 
toning,  the  pictures  being  placed  in  the  dark  as  soon  as 
they  are  removed  from  the  frames,  and  it  is  best  to  do  the 
toning  toward  night,  when  the  light  has  grown  too 
weak  to  be  of  much  effect  in  printing. 


68' 


TONING. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


TONING 

A photograph  is  toned  by  a reduction  of  metallic  gold 
or  platinum  upon  the  silvered  surface  of  the  paper. 
The  gold  or  platinum  is  used  in  the  state  of  chloride 
in  solution.  In  toning,  the  action  may  be  thus  ex- 
plained. The  chlorine  of  the  gold  passes  to  the  silver 
of  the  print,  and  converts  a portion  of  it  into  the  white 
chloride  of  silver  ; hence  the  bleaching  action.  The 
gold  being  thus  liberated,  deposits  on  the  surface  of 
the  print  in  the  metallic  state.  The  case  is  similar  with 
platinum. 

The  only  metals  which  can  thus  be  reduced  on  a 
print  made  with  silver,  are  gold,  platinum,  and  a few 
others  too  rare  to  ever  come  into  use.  Hence  the  fu- 
tility of  employing  such  metals  as  uranium,  lead,  etc., 
in  the  toning  bath,  which  have  been  recommended,  and 
are  to  some  extent  needlessly  used. 

Platinum,  when  used  by  itself,  is  not  so  good  a ton- 
ing agent  as  gold,  for  the  prints  lose  their  color  and 
become  red  in  the  hyposulphite  fixing  bath,  unless  very 


TONING. 


69 


much  over  printed,  and  toned  till  they  are  somewhat 
misty.  Platinum,  when  used  in  conjunction  with  gold, 
is  undoubtedly  a great  improvement,  the  pictures  tak- 
ing a warm  slate  color  inclining’  to  purple,  with  great 
brilliancy  in  the  shadows. 

We  shall  first  treat  of  the  gold  toning  bath,  and 
afterward  give  directions  for  using  platinum  with  it. 

An  acid  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  precipitates  too 
sfowly  to  give  a brilliant  tone  on  albumen  paper,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  have  it  in  an  alkaline  condition  to 
make  it  tone  rapidly  enough.  A gold  bath,  made  alka- 
line with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or  powdered  chalk,  is 
capable  of  giving  every  variety  of  color  that  can  be 
produced  by  the  admixture  of  other  chemicals,  for  it  is 
the  gold  that  produces  the  tone.  There  are  numerous 
substances  which  accelerate  the  reduction  of  gold,  and 
consequently  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  carbonated 
alkalies  in  the  toning  bath;  but  they  have  no  influence 
on  the  color  of  the  print. 

Before  the  prints  are  put  in  the  toning  solution,  they 
must  be  washed  thoroughly  from  free  nitrate  of  silver. 
They  are  known  to  be  washed  sufficiently  when  a little 
common  salt,  added  to  the  water,  produces  no  milkiness 
by  precipitating  chloride  of  silver. 

To  prepare  the  alkaline  toning  bath,  make  a solution 
of  chloride  of  gold,  about  fifteen  grains  to  six  ounces  of 


70 


TONING. 


water;  make  another  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
about  sixty  grains  to  six  ounces  of  water,  thus  : 

J Solution  No.  1. 

Water, 6 ounces. 

Chloride  of  gold,  ...  15  grains. 

Solution  No.  2. 

Water, 6 ounces. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda,  . . 60  grains.  m 

Take  a flat  porcelain  or  earthen  dish  to  be  used  for 
the  toning,  pour  into  it  about  a pint  of  blood-warm  wa- 
ter, and  add  equal  quantities  (say  an  ounce  of  each)  of 
solutions  Nos.  1 and  2.  On  immersing  the  prints  into 
this  bath  they  will  rapidly  change  from  the  brick-red 
color  they  have  after  washing,  to  some  tint  of  purple 
or  blue.  This  is  the  case  when  the  negative  has  been 
of  proper  intensity;  but  a print  from  a thin  and  weak 
negative  will  remain  obstinately  red,  and,  when  it  is 
finally  toned,  will  have  lost  its  brilliancy,  and  be  mealy, 
cold,  and  gray,  when  fixed  and  dried.  Rapid  toning, 
carried  too  far,  will  give  inky-blue  pictures;  too  slow 
toning  will  produce  cold,  dull  prints;  and  insufficient 
toning,  in  a bath  of  proper  working  condition,  will  cause 
the  picture  to  assume  some  shade  of  red  or  brown  when 
finished.  If  the  bath  works  too  rapidly,  add  water;  if 
too  slowly,  add  gold  and  soda;  that  is,  equal  quantities 


TONING  BATH. 


71 


of  the  standard  solutions.  Considerable  experience  is 
required  to  be  able  to  judge  when  the  toning  proceeds 
fast  enough,  and  when  the  print  has  assumed  th^proper 
tint.  When  the  toning  has  gone  far  enough,  take  the 
print  out  and  immerse  it  in  a dish  of  clean  water.  This 
arrests  the  action  immediately. 

TONING  BATH  WITH  CHLORIDE  OF  LIME. 

Solution  No.  1. 

Water,  ......  6 ounces. 

Chloride  of  gold,  . . .15  grains. 

Solution  No.  2. 

Water, 6 ounces. 

Chloride  of  lime,  . . .15  grains. 

Use  equal  quantities  of  each  in  a convenient  quantity 
of  water,  in  the  same  manner  as  described  for  gold  and 
bicarbonate  of  soda.  This  bath  bleaches  more  than 
any  other,  and  requires  deeper  printing. 

TONING  BATH  WITH  ACETATE  OF  SODA. 

Solution  No.  1. 

Water, 6 ounces. 

(Neutral)  Chloride  of  gold,  , 15  grains. 

Solution  No.  2. 

Water, 6 ounces. 

Acetate  of  soda,  ...  CO  grains. 


72 


TONING  BATH. 


Employ  the  two  solutions  in  equal  quantities  with 
water,  the  same  as  for  gold  and  soda. 

With  regard  to  the  amount  of  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
chloride  of  lime,  or  acetate  of  soda  to  use,  no  exact 
proportions  are  necessary.  A much  larger  quantity 
than  we  have  given  in  the  formula  may  be  used  with- 
out materially  affecting  the  results. 

A toning  bath  prepared  an  hour  or  two  before  using 
works  more  energetically  than  when  first  mixed,  and 
the  following  process  gives  excellent  results  : 

Take  a quart  of  water,  and  dissolve  in  it  five  grains 
of  chloride  of  gold,  and  neutralize  any  free  acid  that  may 
exist  with  bicarbonate  of  soda.  Then  add  about  twenty 
grains  of  acetate  of  soda,  and  shake  till  dissolved. 

Let  the  mixture  stand  an  hour  or  two,  or  longer. 
Before  toning,  heat  it  blood-warm  by  means  of  a lamp, 
or  a vessel  of  hot  water  beneath  the  toning  dish. 

The  toning  bath  should  be  in  such  condition,  that 
the  prints  will  tone  in  from  two  to  five  minutes.  It 
should  be  kept  warm  during  the  whole  time  it  is  being 
used,  and  should  be  replenished  with  gold  as  it  becomes 
exhausted  by  immersion  of  prints.  The  bath  will 
sometimes  become  suddenly  inactive,  and  refuse  to 
tone  even  with  a full  supply  of  gold.  In  such  a case, 
the  addition  of  a little  bicarbonate  of  soda  will  gener- 
ally set  it  at  work. 


TONING  BATH. 


73 


The  chloride  of  gold  sold  in  market  is  really  a double 
chloride  of  sodium  and  gold,  made  by  adding  common 
salt  to  chloride  of  gold,  and  generally  contains  an  ex- 
cess of  salt,  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  adulteration. 
Hence,  formulae  for  toning  baths  only  approximate  the 
proper  proportions  of  gold  to  be  used ; but  the  fact  is 
of  little  consequence,  as  the  experienced  operator  never 
weighs  nor  measures  the  ingredients. 

We  have  before  alluded  to  the  use  of  platinum  for 
toning.  The  bichloride  of  platinum,  or,  better,  platino- 
chloride  of  sodium  (made  by  adding  common  salt  to 
the  bichloride  in  chemical  equivalents),  is  dissolved  in 
water,  about  fifteen  grains  to  six  ounces  (the  same 
strength  as  the  gold  solution),  and  added  to  the  gold 
toning  bath  in  such  proportions  as  to  give  the  most 
desirable  tone  to  the  picture.  About  one  part  of  plati- 
num to  two  or  three  of  gold  is  perhaps  a good  propor- 
tion. The  prints  require  to  be  carried  a little  farther 
than  when  gold  alone  is  used,  in  order  that  the  color 
may  not  be  lost  in  the  hyposulphite  solution.  The  pla- 
tinum-toned photographs  are  warmer,  in  the  half-tints 
and  deep  blacks,  than  those  toned  with  gold  exclusively. 
Platinum  can  also  be  recommended  on  the  score  of 
economy,  as  it  costs  much  less  than  gold. 


4 


74 


FIXING  AND  WASHING. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


FIXING  AND  WASHING. 

The  fixing  of  photographs  is  done  in  a solution  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Formula. 

W ater,  . . . . .6  ounces. 

Hyposulphite  of  soda,  . . 1 ounce. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda,  . . .5  grains. 

The  print  should  be  toned  to  such  a degree  that  it 
will  turn  to  a slightly  reddish  color  again  soon  after  im- 
mersion in  the  hyposulphite  solution.  If  it  retains  its 
blue  color  without  change,  it  will  be  inky  blue  when 
dry;  but  if  it  turns  slightly  red,  it  will  generally  as- 
sume a black  or  purple  tone  when  washed  and  dried. 
A print  will  be  fixed,  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  in 
the  solution  given  above.  The  fixing  is  indicated  when 
the  print  appears  clear  and  free  from  spots  and  patches 
of  undissolved  chloride  of  silver  on  looking  through  it 
toward  the  light. 

The  hyposulphite  bath  should  not  be  much  stronger 
than  that  given  above,  as  too  strong  a solution  has  a 


FIXING  AND  WASHING. 


75 


tendency  to  injure  the  tone.  A decomposing  action  is 
set  up  in  the  fixing  bath  by  various  chemicals,  such  as 
acid,  chloride  of  gold,  and  platinum,  etc.,  by  which  it 
acquires  the  property  of  toning  itself,  by  causing  sul- 
phuration  of  the  print  Sulphur  tones  are  not  perma- 
nent, however,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  wash  the 
prints  after  toning  and  before  they  are  put  into  the 
fixing  solution,  to  avoid  the  introduction  of  gold.  The 
bicarbonate  of  soda  is  added  to  the  hypo  bath,  to  neu- 
tralize acid  that  may  form  in  it.  The  fixing  bath  should 
be  prepared  new  every  two  or  three  days,  to  insure  any 
degree  of  permanency  in  the  prints,  and  also  to  pre- 
vent the  proofs  from  becoming  yellow  in  the  whites. 

After  the  prints  are  fixed,  they  should  be  washed 
very  thoroughly,  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  hyposul- 
phite; for,  if  any  of  it  is  left,  it  will  in  time  cause  the 
destruction  of  the  picture.  Six  hours’  washing,  in  a 
running  stream  of  water,  is  perhaps  sufficient  for 
albumen  photographs. 


76 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  ALBUMEN  PRINTS. 


CHAPTER  XY. 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  ALBUMEN  PRINTS. 

The  high  lights  are  chalky , with  too  much  contrast  be- 
tween light  and  shade—  The  negative  is  too  intense. 

Too  little  contrast  and  want  of  vigor. — -The  negative  is 
too  weak. 

The  print  is  red,  or  brown  after  drying. — Insufficient 
toning.  Most  liable  to  occur  with  prints  from  weak 
negatives. 

The  picture  is  cold  and  dull. — Over-toning,  or  the 
negative  has  been  too  weak  to  give  a warm  and  bril- 
liant tone,  or  the  toning  has  proceeded  too  slowly. 

The  print  is  of  an  inky  blue  color. — Caused  by  rapid 
and  excessive  toning. 

Bed  freckled  spots  over  the  entire  surface. — Poor  quality 
of  paper,  or  too  high  a glaze.  Most  likely  to  happen 
with  a thin  negative  and  weak  silver  solution. 

The  print  is  not  toned  uniformly. — The  pictures  have 
not  been  kept  in  motion  in  the  toning  bath,  or  too  many 
have  been  immersed  at  once. 

Black  spots  and,  patches  by  transmitted,  and  yellow  by 


IMPERFECTIONS  OF  ALBUMEN  PRINTS. 


77 


reflected , light. — The  fixing*  solution  is  too  old  and  weak, 
or  the  print  has  not  remained  in  long  enough. 

The  whites  are  yellow. — Caused  by  a sulphureting 
action  of  the  fixing  solution  when  it  is  too  old. 

Bronzed  lines  and  streaks. — Caused  by  a poor  quality 
of  paper,  or  bad  albumenizing. 

Blisters.— A highly  glazed  paper  often  exhibits  blis- 
ters during  the  fixing  and  washing,  but  they  generally 
go  down  on  drying. 


78 


TRIMMING  PHOTOGRAPHS 


CHAPTER  XVI 


TRIMMING  MOUNTING,  AND  PRESSING 
PHOTOGRAPHS. 


Photographs  should  be  cut  or  trimmed  before  toning-, 
in  order  to  save  a needless  consumption  of  gold  in  ton- 
ing superfluous  portions  of  the  paper.  The  silver  of 
the  cuttings  is  also  more  easily  kept  from  wasting  than 
when  dissipated  in  the  different  solutions.  Card  pho- 
tographs may  be  cut  with  a knife  sold  for  the  purpose, 
the  edges  of  which  form  a rectangle  of  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  finished  picture.  The  paper  is  laid  upon 
a block  of  wood,  the  knife  placed  upon  it  and  struck 
with  a mallet.  They  may  also  be  trimmed  by  laying 
the  print  on  a sheet  of  glass,  and  placing  over  it  a 
glass  pattern  of  the  proper  dimensions,  and  cutting 
with  a smooth-edged  knife.  The  knife  used  for  cutting 
must  be  kept  sharp,  as  any  roughness  on  the  edge  will 
tear  the  picture  and  spoil  it.  The  paper  must  also  be 
perfectly  dry  before  cutting,  or  it  will  tear  when  the 
knife  is  drawn  over  it. 

The  prints  may  be  taken  from  the  washing  vat,  in  a 
pack,  and  drained.  While  they  are  still  damp  and 


TRIMMING  PHOTOGRAPHS. 


79 


pliant,  the  adhesive  material,  starch-paste,  gum,  or  what- 
ever may  be  used,  is  applied  to  the  back  of  the  print 
lying  uppermost,  when  it  is  separated  from  the  rest 
and  carefully  placed  upon  the  mounting-board,  and 
pressed  down  by  laying  a clean  piece  of  paper  over  it, 
and  rubbing  with  the  hand. 

After  the  paste  has  become  dry,  the  picture  is  ready 
for  rolling  or  pressing.  Any  of  the  photograph  presses 
answer  the  purpose. 


80  SAYING  SILVER  AND  GOLD  RESIDUES. 


CHAPTER  XYII. 


SAVING  SILVER  AND  GOLD  RESIDUES. 

Not  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  the  silver  used  in 
photography  is  utilized,  or  actually  consumed  in  form- 
ing the  image  of  the  negative  or  print;  the  rest  becomes 
distributed  through  the  washings  and  solutions,  and  is 
wasted  unless  means  are  taken  to  collect  and  save  it. 
With  a little  care  and  attention,  three  fourths  of  the 
whole  amount  of  silver  used  can  be  recovered.  We 
shall  give  the  most  practicable  methods  of  precipitat- 
ing and  saving  silver  from  the  various  solutions  which 
contain  it,  and  also  the  manner  of  recovering  gold  from 
toning  baths. 

No.  1. — The  Wash  from  Negatives. 

The  iron  of  the  developer  suffices  to  precipitate  the 
silver  that  is  washed  from  the  plate,  and  it  may  be 
saved  by  having  the  sink  constructed  as  we  have  de- 
scribed in  the  first  chapter,  under  the  head  of  “Dark 
Room.”  It  may  also  be  saved  by  developing  over  a 
barrel,  and  running  off  the  water,  when  it  is  settled 
clear,  by  a faucet  placed  a little  distance  above  the 
bottom.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  introduce  hypo, 


SAYING  SILVER  AND  GOLD  RESIDUES. 


81 


cyanide,  or  ammonia  into  the  barrel,  as  they  prevent 
precipitation.  The  barrel  may  be  used  to  collect  the 
free  nitrate  of  prints,  the  first  and  second  washings  be- 
ing thrown  in  and  precipitated  with  common  salt.  The 
water  in  the  barrel  should  never  be  drawn  off  until  it 
is  settled  perfectly  clear. 

A great'  excess  of  salt  must  not  be  added  to  throw 
down  the  silver,  for  fear  of  producing  a double  chloride 
of  sodium  and  silver,  which  is  soluble.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  add  salt  so  long  as  a drop  of  nitrate  of  silver  solu- 
tion produces  a milkiness. 

No.  2. — Cyanide  Solution. 

The  cyanide  for  fixing  should  be  kept  in  a tray,  and, 
when  it  becomes  so  saturated  as  to  clear  a negative  too 
slowly,  it  should  be  poured  off  in  a jar,  and  the  silver 
thrown  down  with  a piece  of  sheet  zinc.  The  silver  is 
thus  reduced  to  the  metallic  state,  and  attaches  itself 
to  the  zinc  in  the  form  of  a gray  powder. 

No.  3. — Hyposulphite  Solution. 

The  silver  in  this  solution  may  be  thrown  down  as 
black  sulphuret  with  sulphuret  of  potassium  ; but  it  is 
better  to  precipitate  with  zinc  the  same  as  No.  2. 

No.  4. — Free  Nitrate  Solutions  and  Washings 
May  be  thrown  in  No.  1,  and  precipitated  with  common 
salt. 


4* 


82 


SAYING  SILVER  AND  GOLD  RESIDUES. 


No.  5. — Ammonia  Silver  Solutions. 


These  can  be  precipitated  with  zinc.  Mix  with 
No.  2 or  3. 


This,  after  long  use,  acquires  considerable  silver. 
Throw  the  acid  in  the  barrel  with  No.  1. 


May  be  burned  in  an  open  iron  vessel,  or  a stove  with 
a very  light  draft,  and  the  ashes  preserved. 

Toned  paper  is  not  worth  saving  for  either  silver  or 
gold.  As  we  have  before  recommended,  prints  should 
be  trimmed  before  toning,  in  order  to  save  silver  and 
gold. 

All  the  residues  obtained  by  the  above  methods,  may 
be  mixed  and  dried  in  an  evaporating  dish,  or  other 
suitable  vessel  placed  over  the  stove,  or  in  the  sun. 
They  may  then  be  converted  into  metallic  silver  by  mix- 
ing them  with  twice  their  weight  of  anhydrous  carbon- 
ate of  soda  in  a crucible,  and  heating  to  whiteness  in  a 
furnace.  The  silver  melts  down  to  the  bottom,  and  may 
be  obtained  as  a button  on  breaking  the  crucible.  The 
silver  is  very  impure,  however,  and  requires  to  be  re- 
fined before  it  is  fit  for  converting  into  nitrate. 

Method  of  Saving  Gold  from  the  Toning  Bath. 

As  soon  as  the  prints  are  toned,  pour  the  solution  in 


No.  6. — Acid  for  Cleaning  Plates. 


No.  7. — Silvered  Paper  and  Filters 


SAVING  SILVER  AND  GOLD  RESIDUES. 


83 


a glass  or  stone  jar,  and  let  it  stand  in  a warm  place 
not  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  The  gold  will  fall 
down  as  a dark  purple  powder,  and  the  clear  water  can 
be  decanted,  or  run  off  with  a syphon  whenever  the  jar 
becomes  full.  The  gold  powder  is  very  fine  and  light, 
and  is  easily  lost.  A little  protosulphate  of  iron  will 
cause  it  to  precipitate  sooner.  When  there  is  a sufficient 
accumulation  of  gold  in  the  jar,  it  may  be  sent  to  the 
refiner,  or  it  can  be  again  converted  into  chloride  suita- 
ble for  toning,  by  digesting  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  to 
remove  impurities,  washing,  and  dissolving  in  aqua 
regia. 


84 


PICTURES  ON  PORCELAIN. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


PICTURES  ON  PORCELAIN. 

These  pictures,  which  appear  to  be  coming  in  vogue 
to  some  extent,  are  very  beautiful  ; but  it  requires  the 
utmost  nicety  of  manipulation  to  make  them  perfect. 
The  plates  for  these  pictures  are  sold  as  porcelain,  but 
they  consist  really  of  opaque  white  glass.  The  plate 
is  coated  with  collodion,  and  sensitized  in  the  bath  in 
the  usual  way,  and  the  image  received  from  a negative 
adjusted  in  the  following  manner  : 

The  negative  is  placed  in  one  end  of  a box,  the  other 
end  joining  the  front  end  of  a camera  box,  fitted  with 
a quarter-tube.  The  object  of  the  box  in  front  is  to 
shut  out  extraneous  light.  The  negative  is  placed  to- 
ward the  sun,  or  a reflector  of  white  paper  placed  in 
the  sun,  and  the  image,  formed  by  light  transmitted 
through  the  negative,  is  focussed  on  the  ground  glass 
by  moving  the  bellows  backward  or  forward  as  may 
be  required.  The  box  in  front  containing  the  negative 
should  admit  of  extension  by  the  bellows,  or  by  being 
constructed  of  one  box  sliding  within  another,  in  order 


PICTURES  ON  PORCELAIN. 


85 


that  the  size  of  the  picture  may  be  varied  by  changing' 
the  distance  of  the  negative.  When  the  negative  is 
directed  toward  the  sun,  or  sunlight  is  thrown  upon  it 
by  means  of  a reflecting  mirror,  it  is,  perhaps,  advisa- 
ble to  place  a ground  glass  over  the  negative. 

The  white  collodionized  plate  is  then  exposed  and 
developed  with  the  ordinary  iron  developer,  the  degree 
being  about  the  same  as  for  an  ambrotype.  The  im- 
age will  have  a positive  effect',  however,  as  soon  as  it 
appears,  and  thus  the  development  is  easier  and  more 
certain  than,  with  any  other  kind  of  picture.  After 
washing  the  developer  off,  fix  in  a weak  solution  of 
cyanide. 

The  picture,  at  this  stage,  is  not  as  strong  and  vigor- 
ous as  it  should  be,  and  requires  to  be  darkened  with 
a weak  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  chloride  of 
gold,  or  bichloride  of  platinum.  As  soon  as  the  picture 
appears  of  the  proper  shade,  the  action  of  the  strength- 
ening agent  is  arrested  by  washing  the  plate  under  a 
copious  stream  of  water. 

Let  us  consider  briefly  the  rationale  of  the  process. 
The  negative  allows  the  light  to  pass  through  the  shad- 
ows, and  those  parts  appear  luminous  on  the  ground 
glass.  The  lights,  or  opaque  parts  of  the  negative,  ob- 
struct the  rays,  and  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
image  in  the  camera  will  be  dark.  In  developing,  the 


86 


PICTURES  ON  PORCELAIN. 


silver  will  deposit  on  the  parts  corresponding  to  the 
shadows,  and  give  a brownish  color.  The  parts  that 
constitute  the  lights  will  not  receive  the  silver  deposit, 
and  the  plate,  being  white,  will  show  them  in  their  true 
relation.  The  picture  is  weak  and  flat,  however,  from 
the  shadows  not  being  deep  enough.  When  the 
strengthening  agent  is  applied,  the  silver  on  those 
parts  will  be  darkened,  and  the  picture  will  stand  out 
distinct  and  vigorous. 

The  most  perfect  negatives  must  be  employed,  and 
they  should  be  made  thinner  than  required  for  printing 
on  paper,  with  all  the  gradations  of  half-tone  and 
shadow.  Any  blemishes  or  imperfections  in  the  nega- 
tive will  be  painfully  reproduced  on  the  porcelain 
plate.  One  of  the  principal  difficulties  that  is  liable  to 
occur  is  dinginess  in  the  shadows  of  the  picture,  and 
the  negative  must  be  very  transparent,  and  the  strength- 
ening of  the  picture  must  not  be  carried  too  far. 

Another  method  is  being  practiced  for  the  production 
of  these  pictures,  which  consists  in  printing  them  first 
on  albumen  paper,  prepared  in  such  a manner  that  the 
film  peels  off  during  the  toning  and  fixing.  The  film 
is  then  transferred  to  the  white  plate  while  in  the  wa- 
ter, and  carefully  lifted  out  and  dried.  A great  degree 
of  over-printing  is  required,  on  account  of  the  white 
plate  showing  through  and  making  the  picture  lighter. 


PICTURES  ON  PORCELAIN. 


87 


We  do  not  feel  authorized  to  give  specific  directions  for 
preparing  the  paper,  transferring  the  film,  etc.,  as  our 
experiments  have  not  yet  enabled  us  to  work  the  pro- 
cess with  any  degree  of  certainty.  We  mention  the 
method,  that  those  photographers  interested  may  con- 
tribute their  aid  in  perfecting  it. 


88 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 

To  Make  Chloride  of  Gold. 

Into  a small  evaporating  dish  place  a quantity  of 
pure  gold — dentist’s  foil  or  unalloyed  scraps — and  pour 
on  one  part  nitric  and  four  parts  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
apply  a gentle  heat.  The  gold  will  slowly  dissolve 
with  the  evolution  of  red  vapors.  If  the  gold  does  not 
all  dissolve  in  an  hour  or  two  with  the  first  portion  of 
the  mixed  acids,  add  another  portion  and  continue  the 
heat.  It  is  not  advisable  to  boil  the  acid,  or  much  of 
the  chlorine,  which  is  the  real  solvent  of  the  gold,  will 
be  driven  off  and  wasted. 

When  the  gold  is  all  dissolved,  evaporate  the  solution 
to  dryness,  and  chloride  of  gold,  as  a blackened  mass, 
will  be  left  behind.  Moisten  this  with  a little  water, 
and  add  a quantity  of  fine  table  salt.  A weight  of  salt 
equal  to  that  of  the  gold  may  be  used,  although  it  will 
be  in  excess  of  the  amount  required  to  form  the  auro- 
chloride  of  sodium,  which  is  produced  whenever  com- 
mon salt  is  added  to  chloride  of  gold. 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


89 


Chloride  of  gold  evaporates  to  a small  extent  in  the 
process  of  preparation,  and  too  strong  heat  must  not 
be  applied  when  dissolving  gold  in  aqua  regia.  Gold 
coin,  which  is  alloyed  with  silver  and  copper,  may  be 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  chloride  of  gold.  The 
silver  is  converted  into  insoluble  chloride  by  the  action 
of  the  hydrochloric  acid.  The  copper  may  be  separated 
by  the  following  method  : When  the  coin  is  dissolved, 
and  a small  quantity  of  acid  is  left  unevaporated,  add 
carbonate  of  soda  until  all  effervescence  ceases,  and  a 
green  precipitate  of  carbonate  of  copper  is  formed.  Let 
the  solution  stand  some  hours  for  the  copper  to  sepa- 
rate, and  then  filter;  the  silver  and  copper  will  be  left 
behind;  lastly,  evaporate  the  solution  to  dryness.  In 
this  process  the  carbonate  of  soda  is  converted  into 
common  salt  or  chloride  of  sodium  by  the  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  the  salt  combines  with  the  chloride  of  gold, 
and  forms  auro-chloride  of  sodium.  For  toning  purposes 
the  presence  of  copper  salts  does  not  injure  the  gold, 
and  it  is  not  often  necessary  to  go  to  the  trouble  of 
separating  the  copper. 

Instead  of  using  common  salt  to  form  auro-chloride 
of  sodium,  chloride  of  calcium  may  be  used  to  produce 
the  auro-chloride  of  calcium,  which  is  very  popular  with 
some  photographers,  although  it  has  no  advantage  over 
gold  and  salt. 


90 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


To  Make  Nitrate  of  Silver. 

Take  pure  silver  and  dissolve  with  chemically  pure 
nitric  acid,  diluted  with  two  parts  of  water,  in  an  evapo- 
rating dish,  by  the  aid  of  heat.  When  the  silver  disap- 
pears in  solution,  evaporate  to  dryness  and  fuse.  The 
nitrate  of  silver  may  then  be  dissolved  in  water,  and 
diluted  to  the  strength  required,  and  it  is  ready  for  use 
after  filtering. 

If  silver  containing  copper  is  used,  as  in  the  case  of 
coin,  the  nitrate  of  copper  may  be  decomposed  by  strong 
fusion.  An  insoluble  oxide  of  copper  is  left,  which  can 
be  filtered  out  when  the  mass  is  dissolved  in  water. 
The  nitrate  of  copper  is  known  to  be  entirely  decom- 
posed when  a drop  of  the  fused  mass,  dissolved  in  a 
little  water,  does  not  strike  a blue  color  on  adding  a 
drop  of  aqua  ammonia. 

The  copper  may  be  effectually  removed,  also,  by  dis- 
solving the  mixed  nitrates  in  water,  and  boiling  with 
oxide  of  silver.  The  oxide  of  silver  unites  with  the 
nitric  acid  of  the  nitrate  of  copper,  forming  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  oxide  of  copper  remains,  which  may  be  sepa- 
rated by  filtration.  When  coin  is  used,  the  operation 
may  be  conducted  as  follows: 

Dissolve  the  coin,  and  evaporate  the  solution  to  dry- 
ness. Then  take  about  one  fifth  of  the  mass,  dissolve 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


91 


it  in  water,  and  precipitate  it  with  caustic  potash  as 
oxide  of  silver.  Wash  the  precipitate  until  the  potash 
is  all  removed,  and  then  add  it  to  the  other  portion 
after  dissolving  in  water,  and  boil  the  whole  until  a 
drop  of  ammonia  does  not  give  a blue  color. 

To  Purify  Water  for  Silver  Solutions. 

Water  may  be  freed  from  organic  matter  by  adding 
a small  quantity  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  allowing  it  to 
stand  in  the  sun  till  the  black  insoluble  precipitate  has 
settled.  We  are  of  opinion  that  almost  any  kind  of 
water  could  be  rendered  sufficiently  pure  for  photo- 
graphic purposes  in  this  way.  If  hard  water  were  used, 
the  carbonates  and  soluble  chlorides  would  form  insolu- 
ble precipitates,  which  would  subside,  and  inorganic 
substances,  that  do  not  give  precipitates  with  nitrate 
of  silver,  could  do  no  harm  unless  present  in  very  large 
quantities. 

On  the  Use  of  Test  Papers. 

Litmus  is  a blue  coloring  matter  extracted  from 
lichens  collected  from  rocks  adjoining  the  sea.  Litmus 
paper  is  prepared  by  soaking  unsized  porous  paper  in 
an  infusion  of  litmus,  and  allowing  it  to  dry.  It  is  a 
most  delicate  test  for  acid,  either  gaseous  or  liquid. 
The  presence  of  acid  is  indicated  by  the  paper  turning 
red.  The  reddened  litmus  paper  is  a test  for  alkalies, 


92 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


the  blue  color  being-  restored  by  the  action  of  alkaline 
liquids.  To  test  for  alkalies,  the  blue  paper  should 
first  be  held  over  the  mouth  of  a bottle  containing 
acetic  acid,  until  it  turns  red. 

A cause  of  error  sometimes  arises  in  using  test 
papers — particularly  in  testing  the  toning  bath,  when 
using  bicarbonate  of  soda  or  other  alkaline  carbonates 
for  neutralizing  acid  that  may  exist  in  the  gold.  Car- 
bonic acid  is  given  off  whenever  alkaline  carbonates 
are  acted  upon  b}^  a strong  acid,  and  a portion  being 
dissolved  and  held  by  the  liquid,  the  paper  may  indi- 
cate acid  before  the  point  of  neutralization  is  reached. 
In  this  case  the  carbonic  acid  reddens  the  paper. 

Litmus  paper  should  be  kept  in  a corked  bottle  in 
the  dark.  Light  destroys  the  color  after  a time,  and 
exposure  to  the  air  reddens  it  by  carbonic  and  other 
acid  vapors  diffused  through  the  atmosphere. 

Testing  with  the  Hydrometer. 

The  hydrometer  is  not  an  exact  instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  strength  of  chemical  solutions,  although, 
when  used  with  care,  its  indications  are  sufficiently  ac- 
curate for  the  purposes  of  photography.  Before  using, 
it  should  be  carefully  wiped  from  any  adhering  sub- 
stance that  may  have  become  dried  on.  On  immersion 
into  the  liquid  to  be  tested,  depress  the  tube  below  the 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


93 


line  to  which  it  sinks,  and  allow  it  to  play  up  and 
down  till  it  finds  its  point  of  rest. 

In  determining  the  strength  of  recently  dissolved 
nitrate  of  silver,  shake  the  whole -solution  thoroughly 
before  applying  the  hydrometric  test,  or  you  may  be 
led  very  wide  of  the  mark.  If  the  silver  has  just  been 
dissolved  and  allowed  to  stand,  the  upper  portion  is 
very  much  lighter  than  the  lower,  as  may  be  seen  by 
gently  stirring  the  solution,  when  the  lower  part  will 
appear  thick  and  syrupy. 

Using  Evaporating  Dishes. 

Evaporating  dishes  will  sometimes  break  by  being 
suddenly  heated  or  cooled.  They  may  generally  be 
placed  with  safety  upon  the  stove,  or  over  the  flame  of 
an  alcohol  lamp.  If  they  are  placed  upon  burning 
coals,  they  should  be  protected  by  a sand  bath,  or  a 
sheet-iron  dish  filled  with  black  sand,  in  order  to  dis- 
tribute the  heat  equally.  The  sand  bath  is,  indeed, 
a very  useful  precaution  against  breakage  under  all 
circumstances. 

'When  the  evaporating  dish  contains  a hot  solution, 
great  care  must  be  used  in  adding  a cold  one,  and  it 
must  be  poured  in  slowly  in  a very  small  stream.  The 
safer  plan  is  to  let  the  dish  become  cool  before  filling 

up. 


94 


USEFUL  RECIPES  AND  FACTS. 


Mode  of  Decanting  Collodion . 

A quantity  of  collodion  being  made  up  plain,  and 
contained  in  a tall  bottle,  it  may  be  withdrawn,  with 
out  disturbing  the  sediment,  in  the  following  way: 
Through  a cork  which  nicely  fits  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle,  thrust  two  glass  tubes  about  three  eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter-the  one  descending  into  the  collodion, 
but  not  so  far  as  to  reach  the  sediment — The  other  just 
reaching  through  the  cork,  but  not  dipping  into  the  so- 
lution. The  ’tubes  should  rise  a convenient  distance 
above  the  bottle,  and  may  be  bent  to  the  shape  re- 
quired by  heating  them  in  an  alcohol  lamp.  On  blow- 
ing through  the  short  tube  (or  the  one  that  does  not 
reach  the  surface  of  the  collodion),  a pressure  will  be 
exerted  within  the  bottle,  and  the  collodion  will  rise 
through  the  long  tube,  and  may  be  drawn  in  any 
quantity  desired  for  use. 

To  Remove  Water  from  Alcohol. 

Put  the  alcohol  into  a tall  bottle,  and  to  every  gallon 
add  about  two  pounds  of  unslacked  lime  in  small  frag- 
ments. Cork  the  bottle  and  shake  it  occasionally  for  a 
week  or  more,  and,  when  the  spirit  has  settled  perfectly 
clear,  it  may  be  decanted  for  use. 

Alcohol,  nearly  absolute,  may  be  obtained  in  this 
way. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


95 


APPENDIX. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  only  common  integer  in  the  two  systems  of 
weights  known  as  Troy  and  Avoirdupois  is  the  grain. 
In  the  Troy  ounce  there  are  480  grains,  and  in  the 
Avoirdupois  ounce  431 J grains.  Hence,  the  pound, 
ounce,  and  drachm,  denote  different  quantities  in  each 
system.  In  Apothecaries7  weight,  the  pound,  ounce,  and 
grain  are  the  same  as  in  Troy  weight;  but  the  ounce  is 
divided  into  8 drachms,  each  drachm  into  3 scruples, 
and  each  scruple  into  20  grains.  In  Troy  weight  the 
ounce  is  divided  into  20  pennyweights  of  24  grains 
each. 

In  the  subjoined  tables,  the  value  of  each  weight  in 
Troy,  Apothecaries7,  and  Avoirdupois  weight,  is  given 
in  grains,  and  also  in  French  grammes. 


TROY  WEIGHT. 

Pound. 

Ounces. 

Pennyweights. 

Grains. 

French  grammes. 

1 

12 

240 

5160 

312.96 

. . 

1 

20 

480 

31.08 

. . 

• . 

1 

24 

1.54 

.. 

m # 

.. 

1 

0.0641 

96 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


APOTHECARIES*  WEIGHT. 


Pound. 

Ounces. 

Drachms.  Scruples, 

. Grains. 

French  grammes. 

1 

12 

96  288 

5160 

312.96 

. . 

1 

8 24 

480 

31.08 

. . 

. . 

1 3 

60 

3.885 

. . 

. . 

1 

20 

1.295 

• • 

* • 

AVOIRDUPOIS 

1 

WEIGHT. 

0.0641 

Pound. 

Ounces. 

Drachms. 

Grains.  French  grammes. 

1 

16 

256 

1000 

453.25 

. . 

1 

16 

437.5 

28.328 

. . 

. . 

1 

27.343 

1.77 

• • 

• • 

MEASURE  OP 

1 

VOLUME. 

0.0647 

Weights  are  compared  with  measures  by  subdivid- 
ing the  Imperial  gallon.  The  weight  of  an  Imperial 
gallon  of  absolutely  pure  water,  at  30  inches  pressure 
and  62°,  is  ten  Avoirdupois  pounds , or  10,000  grains. 
It  is  equal  to  21 1. 214  cubic  inches. 


IMPERIAL  MEASURE. 


Gallon. 

1 

Pints. 

8 

Fluid  ounces.  Fluid  drachms. 
160  1280 

Minims. 

16800 

. . 

1 

20  160 

9600 

. . 

• « 

1 8 

4S0 

1 

60 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


97 


WEIGHT  OF  WATER  AT  62°. 


Measure. 

Cubic  inches. 

Grains. 

1 Gallon,  .... 

277.274 

....  70,000 

1 Quart,  

69.318 

....  17,500 

1 Pint,  .... 

34.659 

8,750 

16  Fluid  ounces, 

27.727 

7,000 

1 Fluid  ounce,  .... 

1.732 

437.5 

1 Fluid  drachm, .... 

0.216 

54.7 

1 Minim,  .... 

0.0336 

0.91 

The  weight  of  a cubic  inch  of  distilled  water,  at  62°, 
is  252.458  grains.  The  Troy  ounce  of  distilled  water 
is  equal  to  1.8047  cubic  inches. 

THE  METRICAL  SYSTEM. 

The  metre  is,  in  France,  the  integer  of  the  measure  of 
length,  un-d  all  measures  of  surface,  capacity,  and 
weight,  are  derived  from  it. 

The  integer  of  the  measure  of  capacity  is  the  litre, 
which  is  the  cubed  decimetre,  and  is  equal  to  35.275 
fluid  ounces.  The  integer  of  the  measure  of  weight  is 
the  gramme,  equal  to  15.434  grains.  It  is  the  weight 
of  a cubic  centimetre  of  water  at  its  greatest  density. 
The  French  measures  increase  and  decrease  decimally, 
or  in  the  ratio  of  1,  10,  100,  1000,  etc. 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

English  inches. 


Millimetre .03937 

Centimetre .39371 


5 


98 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


Decimetre, 

English  inches. 

.......  3.93108 

Metre, 

39.31019 

Decametre, 

393.10188 

Hectometre, 

3931.0188 

Kilometre, 

39310.188 

Myriametre, 

393101.88 

MEASURES 

OF  VOLUME. 

Millilitre,. ........... 

Cubic  inches. 

.06103 

Centilitre, 

.61028 

Decilitre, 

6.1028 

Litre, 

61.028 

Decalitre, 

......  610.28 

Hectolitre, 

6102.8 

Kilolitre,  ........... 

‘61028. 

Myrialitre, .......... 

6110280. 

MEASURES 

OF  WEIGHT. 

Milligramme, . . 

English  grains. 

.0154 

Centigramme, 

.1543 

Decigramme, 

1.5434 

Gramme, . 

15.434 

Decagramme, 

154.34 

Hectogramme, 

1543.4 

Kilogramme, 

15434. 

Myriagramme, 

154340. 

THE 


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MANUFACTURERS,  IMPORTERS,  AND  DEALERS  IN 

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And  agents  for  C.  C.  Harrison’s  new  and  improved  Camera 
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Constructed  in  such  a manner  that  the  leaves  cannot  give  out  or 
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3> 


ANALYTICAL  CHEMIST, 

AND  MANUFACTURER  OF 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  CHEMICALS, 

113  LAKE  STREET,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

I would  respectfully  inform  the  fraternity  of  the  North-West  that 
I devote  a portion  of  my  time  to  the  manufacture  of  pure 

FHCTOCEAPHIC  CHEMICALS, 

Such  as  Negative  Cotton,  Iodides  and  Bromides,  Chloride  of 
Gold,  Bichloride  of  Platinum,  Acetate  of  Soda,  Nitrate  of 
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My  Negative  Collodion  is  warranted  to  give  3Pcfntfrt3  Xittensftg 
with  the  iron  developer  when  the  bath  is  in  order,  together  with 
the  finest  gradations  of  half-tone  and  shadow. 

Particular  attention  given  to 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  ASSAYING  AND  REFINING. 

All  residues  of  Silver  and  Gold  sent  to  me  will  be  refined  and 
the  value  returned  in  Cash,  or  Chemicals,  after  deducting  twenty 
per  cent.  I will  also  fill  all  orders  for 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  GOODS, 

of  whatever  kind,  at  the  lowest  market  prices.  I have  on  hand  an 
assortment  of 

EVAPORATING-  DISHES, 

of  all  sizes,  which  I will  furnish  at  very  low  prices. 

N.B. — Photographers  sending  me  ten  cents  [to  cover  the  cost), 
will  receive  samples  of  Card  Photographs , toned  with  Gold  and 
Platinum. 


PURE  PHOTOGRAPHIC  CHEMICALS. 


SEELY  & BOLTWOOD, 

CHEMISTS, 

No.  244  CANAL  STREET,  NEW  YORK, 

MANUFACTURE  THE 


USED  BY  PHOTOGRAPHERS, 


Of  the  best  materials,  and  according  to  the  most  approved  processes. 
Their  Chemicals  have  the  highest  repute  among  the  most  successful 
artists,  and  are  commonly  recognized  as  the  Standard  for  the 
most  desirable  qualities  of  Uniformity,  Reliability,  and  Purity. 
Their  celebrated 

PHOTOGRAPHIC  COLLODION 

Is  unsurpassed  for  the  Harmony,  Delicacy,  and  Strength  of 
the  negatives  which  it  invariably  gives  under  the  usual  treatment. 
The  great  excellency  of  the  Collodion  is  mainly  due  to  the  Gun 
Cotton  and  the  Pure  Iodides  and  Bromides  which  enter  into  its 
composition,  as  well  as  to  the  recipe  after  which  it  is  manufactured. 

The  Highest  Price  paid  for  waste  Silver  Solutions,  Paper, 
etc. 

In  addition  to  their  stock  of  chemicals,  the  subscribers  are  con- 
stantly supplied  with  the  very  best  Photographic  Paper,  plain 
and  albumenized,  and  are  prepared  to  execute  orders  for  Photo- 
graphic Materials  of  Every  Description.  Goods  sent  by  Ex- 
press to  all  parts  of  the  country,  “C.O.D.”  Orders  should  be 
addressed, 

SEELY  & BOLTWOOD, 
CHEMISTS, 

244  Canal  Street,  Hew  York. 


BENJAMIN  FRENCH  & CO., 

IMPORTERS  AND  DEALERS  IN 

Pjotogritpjnt  $ Jntfodgp  Utaferrals, 


Embracing  every  article  required  by  the  Artist  or  Amateur. 


BENJAMIN  FRENCH  & CO., 

SOLE  AGENTS  FOR  THE  CELEBRATED 

VOIGTUNDER  & SON’S  CHEW. 

These  instruments  are  superior  to  any  now  in  use  ; they  work  in 
less  time  and  space  than  any  others  made,  and  can  be  had  in  sets  of 
two  or  four  of  exactly  same  length  of  focus.  Also,  Agents  for  the 

Saxe  Positive  and  Albumenized  Paper ; also  other  kinds, 
all  of  superior  quality. 

Photographic  Albums,  Card  Board,  Card  Mounts,  Photo- 
graphic Rollers,  Camera  Boxes,  of  every  desirable  style  and 
finish. 

French  and  American  Chemicals,  Passe-Partouts,  Paper 
Matts,  Cases,  Frames,  Matts  and  Preservers,  at  wholesale 

and  retail,  at  lowest  Gash  prices. 

EENJ.  FRENCH  & CO., 

159  Washington  Street,  Boston. 


1ST.  C.  THAYER, 

113  LAKE  STREET,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Photographic  & Ambrotype  Materials 
of  every  description  needed  by 

OPERATORS  OR  AMATEURS. 


PURE  CHEMICALS, 

Made  expressly  for  Photographic  purposes,  and  perfectly  reliable. 

Photographic  Presses  and  Apparatus  of  all  kinds  and  of 
the  latest  styles. 

ALBUMEN  PAPER, 

Of  the  very  best  quality— Saxe  — Hives  — Super-Extra,  and 
Pink,  both  thick  and  thin,  with  Printed  Process  for  working  the 
same  successfully. 

GOIzLQBlOM. 

Thayer’s  Celebrated  Carte  de  Yieite,  Negative,  and  Ambrotype 
Collodion,  superior  to  all. other  kinds. 

’ CAMERAS. 

Yoigtlander  & Son’s — C.  C.  Harrison’s — Holmes,  Booth  & Hay- 
dens’, and  Jamin’s — of  all  sizes.  The  largest  stock  kept  in  the 
West,  and  all  warranted. 

FERROTYPE  PLATES— GRISWOLD’S  . 

Having  the  exclusive  Agency  for  the  North-west,  an  immense 
stock  of  these  justly  celebrated  Plates  always  on  hand,  at  prices 
defying  competition. 

Oval,  Gilt,  & Rosewood  Frames,  Albums,  etc., 

In  great  variety,  always  on  hand. 

Orders  filled  with  a degree  of  promptness  and  accuracy  un- 
equaled by  any  other  house  in  the  trade. 

Address,  Drawer  6297. 


I beg  to  call  the  attention  of  the  photographic  public  to  the  fol- 
lowing low  rates,  at  which  I am  now  enabled  to  offer  my  plates. 
The  superiority  of  the  Ferrotype  Plates  (a  fact  to  be  carefully  con- 
sidered, in  comparing  my  prices  with  others)  to  every  other  similar 
article,  is  universally  conceded,  and  I guarantee  that  the  standard 
of  excellence,  which  has  secured  its  high  reputation,  will  be  rigidly 
maintained : 


Prices  of  Ferrotype  Plates— Egg-Shell  and  Glossy. 


LIGHT. 

1-9  per  Box  of  8 doz. .......  .^1  10 

1-8  41  44  1 75 

1-4  “ 44  2 65 


HEAVY. 

1-4  per  Box  of  8 doz $3  05 

1-2  44  4 “ 4 50 

4-4  44  4 44  10  00 


Carte  &e  Viste,  and  other  sizes,  to  order,  at  favorable  rates. 

My  terms  are  CASH — par  funds  in  this  city,  when  convenient. 
Boxing  and  cost  of  collection  by  Express  Company,  will  be  at  the 
expense  of  the  purchaser,  except,  when  $10  worth  of  plates,  at  the 
above  prices,  are  ordered  at  one  time.  Trusting  that  these  prices 
and  terms  will  be  entirely  satisfactory,  I respectfully  solicit  orders. 


CAUTION!! 

The  great  popularity  which  the  Egg-Shell  brand  of  Ferrotype 
Plates  has  attained,  has  induced  unscrupulous  parties  to  assume 
that  name  for  certain  comparatively  worthless  imitations.  The  liability 
of  the  venders , as  well  as  the  manufacturers  of  such  plates , FOR  A VIO- 
LATION OF  MY  TRADE  MARK,  IS  UNQUESTIONABLE. 

fam*  Get  only  GRISWOLD’S  genuine  EGG-SHELL 
PLATES. 


All  my  plates  are  put  up  in  strong,  tight,  neat,  and  handy 
boxes.  The  boxes  are  covered  with  brown  Manilla  paper,  and  la- 
belled (in  green  and  gold),  on  both  sides,  “ Griswold’s  Ferrotype 
Plates  on  both  ends,  the  number,  size,  and  kind  of  Plates. 

Orders  may  be  addressed  to  any  stock-dealer,  or  to 


V.  M.  G-RISWOLD, 

4:4:8  Broadway,  N.  Y.,  or  Lancaster,  O. 

December,  1863. 


V 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


3 3125  00595  0361 


